


.JL 



EEPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 



THRONES' OVERTURNED 



BY THE 



BIBLE. 



BY JOHN V CEOWELL, 

U 
PASTOR OF THE FIRST PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, WEST CHESTER, PA. 



PHILADELPHIA: 

JOHN T. LANGE, 24 S. SECOND STREET. 

1849. 



N 



3C* 



3^ 
% 



Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1849, by 

JOHN CROWELL, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Eastern District of 
Pennsylvania. 



\J I •- 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION 7 

PART I 

THE CIVIL GOVERNMENT OF THE ISRAELITES. 



CHAP. I. THE SCRIPTURE ACCOUNT OF THE EARLY 

CONDITION OF MANKIND 11 

II. GOVERNMENT OVER THE HEBREWS UNTIL 

THE DEATH OF MOSES 13 

III. THE HEBREW COMMONWEALTH IN PALES- 
TINE 18 



IV. THE OVERTHROW OF THE COMMONWEALTH 34 

3 



CONTENTS. 



PART II. 

THE REPUBLICANISM OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN 
CHURCHES. 



CHAP. I. THE DEMOCRATIC TENDENCIES OF THE 

GOSPEL OF JESUS CHRIST 39 



II. THE ORGANIZATION OF REPUBLICAN 

CHURCHES 59 



III. THE RISE OF PRELACY IN THE CHRISTIAN 

CHURCHES 85 



IV. THE GROWTH OF THE POPE S TEMPORAL 

POWER 105 



V. THE CORRUPTION OF CHRISTIANITY - - 113 



VI. THE GRADUAL WRESTING OF THE ELECT- 
IVE FRANCHISE FROM THE PEOPLE - - 116 



CONTENTS. 



PART III. 

REPUBLICAN INSTITUTIONS RESULTING FROM THE 
REVIVAL OF CHRISTIANITY. 

CHAP. I. DECAY OF THE PAPAL POWER - - - - 122 

II. THE INFLUENCE OF THE SCRIPTURES IN 

FRANCE AND SWITZERLAND - - - - 125 

III. THE INFLUENCE OF THE SCRIPTURES IN 

GERMANY 133 

IV. THE INFLUENCE OF THE SCRIPTURES IN 

ENGLAND 140 

V. INFLUENCE OF THE SCRIPTURES UPON 

AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 151 

VI. INFLUENCE OF AMERICA AND OF THE 

SCRIPTURES UPON OTHER NATIONS - - 173 

CONCLUSION 197 

1* 



INTRODUCTION. 



The Scriptures recognise the right of every 
established government to the obedience of 
the people who live under it. This right is 
conferred, not by the people, but by God 
himself. "Let every soul be subject unto 
the higher powers. For there is no power 
but of God : the powers that be are ordained 
of God. Whosoever therefore resisteth the 
power, resisteth the ordinance of God : and 
they that resist shall receive to themselves 
condemnation."* 

These precepts have their place in an 
inspired and systematic exhibition of Chris- 
tian doctrine. With reference to obedience 

* Rom. xiii. 1 — 7. 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

unto established governments, they are as 
authoritative as is the doctrine of justifica- 
tion by faith with reference to the way of 
salvation. They do not require passive obe- 
dience, but such as has its limits and its 
laws. The word of God supplies a clear 
light by which the limits may be defined 
and the laws studied. 

The government existing when these pre- 
cepts were enjoined upon Christians was a 
monarchy — a despotism. It had extended 
its dominions by conquest, crushing other 
governments, or absorbing them in its own. 
It was exercised not by the good and gentle, 
but by a tyrant; not by Trajan, but by Nero. 
Yet do the laws of Christianity proclaim that 
such a government is clothed with lawful 
authority by God himself, and that resist- 
ance to that is rebellion against him. 

From these positive commands to obey a 
Monarchy, when established as the govern- 
ment "de facto" the inference has been boldly 
drawn that God approves and appoints mo- 



INTRODUCTION. 9 

narchy as " de jure' the form of government 
for mankind. 

This inference has acquired increased plau- 
sibility, from the fact that the governments 
existing during the whole period with which 
Scripture history is conversant were, with 
few exceptions, monarchies ; consequently the 
Bible refers to and records many of the ac- 
tions of kings. Patriarchs, prophets, apostles, 
even Christ himself, were called before them, 
addressed them as such, acknowledged their 
authority, and submitted to it. The Saviour 
stood before the Imperial governor as before 
one to whom power from above had been 
given. The apostle of the Gentiles appealed 
unto Cassar's judgment-seat as the supreme 
earthly tribunal " where he ought to be 
judged." Indeed the whole Bible has some- 
thing regal in its tone, caused by its familiar- 
ity with the governments of kings. 

Thus it has the more easily happened that 
the doctrine of the divine right of kings, 
maintained as if taught in the Bible, has 



10 INTRODUCTION. 

contributed in no small degree and with no 
transient influence to the stability of their 
thrones. While their persons have been 
rendered splendid by gems and purple, and 
secure by the locked array of armed men, 
they have attained sacredness also by the 
awful words — "Ex Dei gratia." 

In opposition to this doctrine, whether 
boldly avowed or secretly held, we maintain 
the following simple, yet positive proposition : 

The forms of human government which 
God has instituted have been Republi- 
can; Monarchies are the work of men. 

The proof of this proposition is to be 
sought, 

I. In the Civil Government of the 

Israelites. 
II. In the primitive Christian Churches. 

III. In the Institutions, religious and 
civil, which have resulted from 
the Reformation of the Christian 
Religion. 



PART I. 



THE CIVIL GOVERNMENT INSTITUTED BY DIVINE 
AUTHORITY IN THE LAND OF PALESTINE. 



CHAPTER L 

THE SCRIPTURE ACCOUNT OP THE EARLY CONDITION OF 
MANKIND. 

The Scriptures give a remarkable account 
of the human race as they were first spread 
abroad after the flood. "They journeyed;" 
" they found ;" "they dwelt j" " they said one 
to another ; 9 " Let us make us a name;' "the 
children of men/ 9 "the people is one/ 9 "they 
have all one language/ 9 "this they begin to do: 
and now nothing will be restrained from them 
which they have imagined to do."* Here is 

* Gen. xi. 1—9. 

11 



12 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

a description of democratic independence, 
union, and energy; and, because these quali- 
ties were unrestrained by law, of violence 
also. 

God broke up this vast democracy into 
pieces, by confounding their language. The 
fragments, however, were democratic still. 
No king was divinely appointed over them. 
After their division, the people are described 
as scattered abroad in tribes, according to 
their descent. From this point in their his- 
tory, individuals among the mass began to 
usurp power as they could. Nimrod is spe- 
cified as the leader in that mode of acquiring 
greatness, which soon became general, and 
has continued so to the present hour. The 
proverb — " As Nimrod the mighty hunter in 
the face of Jehovah,"* — which then had its 
origin in the rapid imitation of his example, 
has not yet become obsolete or obscure. 

* Gen. x. 8—10. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 13 



CHAPTER II. 

GOVERNMENT OVER THE HEBREWS UNTIL THE DEATH 

or MOSES. 

Abraham was called forth by the voice of 
God from the midst of spreading idolatry 
and rising monarchy. This was the starting 
point of that Divine plan, for the benefit of 
mankind, which has ever since been in pro- 
gress, and whose consummation is yet to be 
witnessed. It was designed to affect the re- 
ligious and civil condition of the whole world. 
" In thee shall all the families of the earth 
be blessed." This promise included both a 
spiritual and a temporal blessing — the one 
of supreme, the other of subordinate yet vast 
importance. Our attention is often directed 
to the former ; let us now confine it to the 

latter. 

2 



14 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

Abraham and his immediate descendants 
governed their families ; they were not yet a 
nation. The deliverance from Egypt having 
been at the appointed time achieved, a na- 
tional government became necessary. It was 
appointed by God himself, consequently we 
are greatly interested in ascertaining what 
that government was. We must look for it, 
not in the wilderness, but in the promised 
land. From Egypt to Canaan the arrange- 
ments adopted were chiefly temporary and 
preparatory. 

Viewed as preparatory, however, they in- 
dicate the nature of the government to be 
established. The people were delivered as a 
nation, not as the subjects of any monarch. 
The mass, and every man in that mass, was 
brought to view. 

They had a leader of God's appointment, 
and clothed with great authority so far as 
God supported him, but utterly defenceless 
so far as human power was concerned. He 
had no lictors — no bodyguard. They were 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 15 

not his army ; but he was their leader. In 
the exercise of their democratic will they 
threatened to tear him in pieces, or to make 
themselves a captain and march away. His 
authority and power in these and all emer- 
gencies depended entirely upon God. A rod 
was his only weapon ; a pillar of cloud and 
fire his only shield. 

Even the great authority which God gave 
him was only temporary. It bore the same 
relation to the government of the Hebrews 
afterwards established as the authority of 
Washington during the revolution bore to the 
American government. That ended when 
Washington resigned his commission, so the 
authority vested in Moses was destined to 
end when Israel should have gained posses- 
sion of Canaan. 

Let us mark here the providence of God. 
Moses was not permitted to enter the land. 
We have often contemplated this prohibition 
as a punishment for his sin. Let us now re- 



16 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

gard it as throwing light upon the institutions 
of the Hebrews. 

By the death of Moses, a successor to his 
high office was rendered necessary. Who 
was appointed? The oldest son of Moses? 
Any of his sons ? No : but one from a differ- 
ent tribe. We are informed that Moses had 
sons; that his first born had been regularly 
initiated into the congregation and conse- 
quently was not ineligible to office ; and that 
at Sinai they had rejoined their father. From 
that point they make no figure at all in the 
narrative. They were raised to no office; 
they were endowed with no privilege on ac- 
count of their relationship to the leader of 
the people. They are never again mentioned 
or alluded to in the subsequent history until 
the time of David, when it is recorded that 
their descendants continued among the Le- 
vites, the lower grade of the priesthood to 
w r hich they were destined by their birth. 
Thus it is clear that the family of Moses in- 
herited from him no political rank whatever. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 17 

And as after the lapse of many generations 
we are able to trace the influence of heredi- 
tary succession in human governments and 
over human affairs ; as we know the oppres- 
sion it has caused, the torrents of blood it has 
shed, the agency and foreknowledge of God 
in the case of Moses' sons are as clear as the 
noon-day. 



2* 



18 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 



CHAPTER III. 

THE HEBREW COMMONWEALTH IN PALESTINE. 

Joshua was appointed the successor of 
Moses by God himself.* The transfer of 
authority was solemnly made by Divine 
command in the presence of all the people. 
Under him possession of Palestine w r as se- 
cured. 

It is at this period, we affirm, that God 
appointed for the Hebrews republican insti- 
tutions ; and we proceed to make the affirma- 
tion good by considering 

1. The Division of the Land. 

2. The Establishment of Religion. 

3. The Administration of the Laws. 

* Deut. xxxi. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 19 



SECTION I. 

THE DIVISION OF THE LAND. 

According to Divine commandment the 
land was apportioned by lot to each tribe — to 
each family — to each individual. By this ar- 
rangement alone, republican institutions 
were secured. 

For in order to understand the effect on the 
government and laws, of this tenure of land 
by all the people "in fee simple/' (simple so 
far as men are concerned,) we have only 
to place it side by side with "the feudal 
system" introduced into modern Europe by 
the northern nations. 

The foundation of that system (as is well 
known) was this — "Large districts of the 
conquered territory were allotted by the con- 
quering general to the superior officers of the 
army, and by them dealt out again in smaller 
parcels to the inferior officers and most de- 
serving soldiers. These allotments were 






20 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

called 'feoda — i fees' — i. e. 'a conditional sti- 
pend or reward/ The condition annexed to 
them was that the possessor should do service 
faithfully both at home and in the wars, to 
him by whom they were given ; for which 
purpose he took the oath of fealty, and in 
case of the breach of this condition and oath, 
by not performing the stipulated service or 
by deserting the lord in battle, the lands were 
again to revert to him who granted them."* 

This one principle bound all the people to 
one man as their sovereign lord and king; 
thus establishing a royal government of the 
greatest possible vigour and permanence. 

The feudal system was adopted in other 
countries besides those into which it was in- 
troduced by actual conquest. u Most if not 
all the princes of Europe thought it necessary 
to enter into the same or a similar plan. 
For whereas before, the possessions of their 
subjects were wholly independent and held 
of no superior at all, now they parcelled out 

* Blackstone, b. 2, ch. 4, § 45. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 21 

their royal territories, or persuaded their 
subjects to surrender up and retake their own 
landed property under the like feodal obligations 
of military fealty. And thus in the compass 
of a very few years, the feodal constitution, 
or the doctrine of tenure, extended itself all 
over the Western world."* 

As the introduction of the system into 
conquered countries built up monarchical 
institutions of a solid and rigorous nature, 
so its voluntary adoption produced similar 
results in strengthening existing kings, and 
in altering the whole fabric of institutions 
and laws. " The alteration of landed pro- 
perty in so very material a point, necessarily 
drew after it an alteration of laws and cus- 
toms, so that the feodal laws soon drove out 
the Eoman, which had hitherto universally 
obtained, but now became for many cen- 
turies lost and forgotten, and Italy itself, 
'belhinas atque ferinas immanesque Longobar- 
dorum leges accepit.'"* 

* Blackstone. 



22 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

The whole effect of the feudal system was 
witnessed in England, where it was intro- 
duced by William the Conqueror, partly by 
bestowing the forfeited lands of the Eng- 
lish who had fallen in battle upon his Nor- 
man followers, and partly by persuading his 
English subjects to "submit their lands to the 
yoke of military tenure, to become his vas- 
sals, and do homage to his person." "In 
consequence of this change, it became a fun- 
damental maxim and necessary principle of 
English tenures, (though in reality a mere 
fiction,) that the king is the universal lord 
and original proprietor of all the lands in his 
kingdom, and that no man doth or can pos- 
sess any part of it. but what has mediately 
or immediately been derived as a gift from 
him to be held upon feodal services. For 
this being the case in pure, original proper 
feuds, other nations who adopted this system 
were obliged to act upon the same supposi- 
tion, as a substruction and foundation of their 
new polity, though the fact was indeed far 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 23 

otherwise." Thus were introduced "not 
only the rigorous doctrines which prevailed 
in the dutchy of Normandy, but also such 
fruits and dependencies, such hardships and 
services, as were never known to other na- 
tions ; as if the English had in fact, as well 
as theory, owed every thing they had to the 
bounty of their sovereign lord."* 

As a result of the same system, even at 
this day, the whole structure of English 
liberty retains the appearance either of vio- 
lence, as if the people had wrested from the 
king a portion of his prerogative ; or of vas- 
salage, as if on their bended knee they had 
received from him a royal boon; whereas all 
that they have acquired, either by force or 
favour, is only the recovery of what was 
originally their own. 

Thus it appears from this historical view, 
(which has been intentionally given chiefly 
in well-known and authoritative language,) 
that the condition of servitude attached to 

* Blackstone. 



24 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

the tenure of landed property necessarily 
and invariably involved rigorous subjection 
to the will of a monarch, and turned all laws 
and customs into chains. Therefore, by pa- 
rity of reasoning, we conclude that the "allo- 
dial tenure" of landed property wholly indepen- 
dent of any human superior, as necessarily 
involved exemption from human kingly rule. 
The possessor of the land was, so far as it 
and his own person were concerned, a sove- 
reign on his own domain. He was subject 
to God, because from him he held both his 
own being and the land on which he stood. 
But with reference to his own conduct and 
interest he was independent of men. Where 
all the people enjoyed this allodial tenure, 
they were all, as individuals, independent of 
other men, and as they were connected to- 
gether in a common country, with mutual 
and interlocked interests, a " res publica"—& 
" common wealth" necessarily existed. 

To apply this to the case before us. If, 
upon the conquest of Canaan, Joshua, as the 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 25 

conquering general, had apportioned the land 
as a grant from himself to his superior officers, 
and they to the inferior officers and soldiers, 
a government of king, lords, and commons 
would have been established. Had this di- 
vision been made by Divine command, then 
the king and his nobles would have reigned 
" by Divine right." 

But as, on the contrary, the land was di- 
vided among all the people, as the common 
gift of God to all, the foundation of repub- 
lican institutions was thereby laid. Had 
Joshua devised this plan, he would have been 
entitled to high praise for wisdom and equity, 
and the Hebrew republic, however worthy of 
imitation, would have been of human institu- 
tion. But the plan of division was as directly 
from God as the land to be divided was his 
gift. All the persons to be intrusted with 
making the division He had appointed by 
name before the conquest, and on republican 
principles — one from each tribe, together with 
Joshua, the civil ruler, and Eleazar, the high 



26 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

priest. He had directed the division to be 
by lot, " the whole disposing of which was of 
himself." It is therefore clear that the foun- 
dation of the Hebrew republic was laid by 
Divine appointment. 

We have only to add, that by the restric- 
tion imposed on the sale or forfeiture of 
landed property, so that it should return 
every half century to its original possessors, 
and on the marriage of daughters so that 
their inheritance should continue in their 
own tribe, the Divine will was clearly pro- 
claimed that these institutions should con- 
tinue permanent through future generations. 



SECTION II. 

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RELIGION. 

The republican nature of Hebrew institu- 
tions further appears from the adoption of 
religion by the voice of the people. 

We certainly do not maintain that the 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 27 

consent of men is necessary to the authority 
of God over them. On the contrary, his ab- 
solute sovereignty is a necessary inference 
from their entire dependence. His right to 
their service and worship is independent 
alike of their consent or refusal. But he de- 
sires only voluntary service. Therefore his 
right to demand it implies the right of men 
to yield it. His right to prescribe religion 
implies their right to adopt it. No human 
authority can impose it on them. 

God gave his law to the Hebrews. The 
evidence that it was from him was addressed 
to them all. Thus proved, it w^as binding 
upon them ; but the question whether they 
would receive it was between them and God. 
The adoption of it must be their own volun- 
tary act. No earthly power could force it on 
them. Accordingly, after their settlement in 
Canaan, this question was solemnly submitted 
to them in a public assembly. The whole 
proceedings are recorded in the last chapter 
of Joshua. We are accustomed to regard 



28 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

them as the narrative concerning an impor- 
tant religious duty : — they also record the 
exercise of a high civil privilege by a free 
people. They prove that all human authority 
to impose religious observances was disclaim- 
ed, and the right of every man to choose for 
himself recognised — Choose ye whom ye will 
serve ; as for me and my house, we will serve the 
Lord. This choice the people deliberately 
made, saying, The Lord our God will we 

SERVE, AND HIS VOICE WILL WE OBEY. 

Thus was a covenant entered into between 
God and the people, by virtue of which the 
law given by him, and adopted by them, be- 
came the established religion of the land. 



SECTION III. 

THE REPUBLICAN ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAWS. 

The office which Moses and Joshua suc- 
cessively held, though dictatorial in some 
respects, was, as has been said above, only 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 29 

temporary. At length Joshua died. How 
marked the difference between the close of 
his official career and that of Moses ! 

Moses had gathered together the people, 
announced to them his approaching death, 
and solemnly transferred his authority to 
Joshua in the presence of them all. The 
transfer made by Divine command was pub- 
licly confirmed by the symbol of the Divine 
presence. But, in the case of Joshua, nothing 
of the kind occurred. No successor was in- 
ducted, nominated, or provided. When the 
old man died his office expired, and the next 
page of the history opens in this remarkable 
manner: " After the death of Joshua, the 
children of Israel asked the Lord, 'Who 
shall go up for us against the Canaanites.' " 
They stood before God a nation without an 
earthly head, exercising their sovereignty in 
subjection only to him. 

Yet they were not without provision for 
the administration of the laws. At a very 
early period after the departure frcm Egypt, 

3* 



30 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

Moses had " chosen from all Israel able men, 
who feared God and hated covetousness, to 
be rulers over thousands, hundreds, fifties, 
and tens." Their office was to judge the 
people at all times when any matter arose 
between man and man ; making them know 
the statutes and laws. The smaller causes 
they decided themselves, the harder they 
referred to Moses. 

Here was the outline of that system of as- 
cending courts which is so prominent and in- 
dispensable in the United States, and in 
which is lodged so much of the government 
that is exercised over all the people " at all 
times." And the qualifications which Moses 
required are the very ones which the expe- 
rience of all ages since has demanded. Let 
the judges among us, or any people where 
liberty is guarantied by the laws, be able 
men, hating covetousness, and fearing 
God, and we are as safe as we can be on 
earth. Let them be destitute of these quali- 
fications, or of any one of them, (it matters 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 31 

little which one,) and the choice of anarchy 
or despotism is before us. This reference to 
our own country is made not so much for the 
sake of sounding a warning, (which yet might 
be useful if it could be heard,) as for throwing 
the light of our institutions on those of the 
Hebrews. Since among us so adequate a 
provision is made for the usual purposes of 
internal government, by the general establish- 
ment of legal tribunals, we may understand 
the nature and value of the similar provision 
made by Moses. 

These magistrates appear to have been 
continued among the people. For in their 
assembly called by Joshua, to which refer- 
ence has been already made, their elders, 
heads, officers, and judges were present. 
And, at a later period, "the governors of 
Israel" — the " men of laws" — rallied around 
Deborah. As there was no hereditary suc- 
cession, it is probable the people in some way 
exercised their choice in their appointment. 

A supreme officer over all the land, who 



32 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

also was a judge to execute the laws, not a 
king to will them, was appointed from time 
to time by God himself. His providence 
fitted him for the crisis ; His command called 
him to the post. This appointment appears 
to have been reserved as the prerogative of 
God, and would probably have been yielded 
to the people at a subsequent period, if they 
had shown themselves capable of exercising 
it wisely. 

In estimating the practical operation of 
these popular institutions, we are to remem- 
ber that the experiment was entirely novel. 
The people had emerged from a state of 
bondage only one generation before. During 
that period they had been subjected to con- 
stant and effective discipline, and were thus 
partially qualified for their untried task. 
Yet were they destitute of that practical ex- 
perience, without which theoretical instruc- 
tion is utterly inadequate. Consequently 
commotion, and strife, and violence were to 
be expected at the outset. These are part of 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 33 

the first cost which must be paid for liberty. 
Even at the beginning, the advantages over- 
balanced the evils ; — the periods of tranquillity 
were longer than those of violence and mis- 
rule. 

But the experiment in its progress was 
marred by the growing corruption of the peo- 
ple. Liberty degenerated into licentiousness, 
until at length every man doing that which 
was right in his own eyes, the whole country 
was involved in war by the violence of a sin- 
gle mob. 



34 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 



CHAPTER IV. 

THE OVERTHROW OF THE COMMONWEALTH. 

We have now briefly to trace the overthrow 
of these divinely appointed institutions by 
the hand of the people themselves. 

They first wished to confer hereditary 
royalty upon Gideon because of his military 
success. " Rule thou over us, both thou and 
thy son and thy son's son also, for thou hast 
delivered us from Midian." Gideon refused. 
" I will not rule over you, neither shall my son: 
the Lord shall rule over you." Abimelech 
seized the royal power, according to the biting 
sarcasm of Jotham, that when the olive, the 
fig, and the vine had successively declined 
being king over the trees, the bramble took 
them under his royal shadow. He was slain 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 35 

in battle, and thus the introduction of royalty- 
was postponed. 

The revolution was accomplished in the old 
age of Samuel, who, after his own spotless 
administration, committed the grievous error 
of making his sons judges in his stead; thus 
introducing the principle of hereditary suc- 
cession, at the same time that he appointed 
wicked men. Seizing the pretext offered by 
their misrule, the people demanded a kingly 
government. The result is full of instruction. 
Samuel was displeased and disposed to resist. 
He however referred the application to God, 
the Sovereign over that and all governments. 
Mark the decision. "Hearken unto the voice 
of the people : yet protest solemnly unto them, and 
show them the manner of the king that shall reign 
over them" 

The voice of the people is to prevail. They 
have had the right conferred upon them of 
choosing their own form of government. If 
they are unwise or even wicked in their 
choice, there is yet no right of resisting it by 



36 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

force vested anywhere on earth. A solemn 
protest is "the last argument" to which a 
republican ruler or a minority ought to resort. 
That entered by Samuel graphically describes 
the transition from republican to monarchical 
institutions. Personal liberty is sacrificed. 
The security of the family circle is invaded. 
The rights of property are trampled under 
foot. Independence becomes vassalage, as 
if the king had been the original grantor of 
every blessing. 

We are often called upon to consider what 
would have been the result on the religion 
of the world if the Hebrews had remained 
true to their mission. God gave them his 
law and placed them in the centre of the 
known world, that the nations might behold 
the light and finally come to it. But they 
themselves fell into the idolatry of the na- 
tions, instead of maintaining that system 
which distinguished them from all, and the 
maintenance of which was the chief design 
of all the restrictions and peculiarities im- 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 37 

posed on them. Thus God's purpose to make 
them a blessing to the Gentiles was interfered 
with and delayed. 

We are now as forcibly taught what might 
have been the influence exerted on the civil 
institutions of other nations had the Hebrews 
maintained their own. Their light also would 
have shone upon the monarchies which clus- 
tered around Palestine — as the spectators of 
an amphitheatre around the stage — and the 
results produced by American institutions in 
causing monarchs to tremble even on their 
distant thrones might have been witnessed 
at that early day. But, instead of maintain- 
ing at all hazards their republican singularity 
until the nations became like them, they in- 
sisted on having a king that they " might be 
like the nations." Thus with their own hand 
they hurled to the dust that divinely kindled 
torch of which they had been chosen the first 
bearers. 

Henceforward the government over them 

was essentially royal until the remnant of the 

4 



38 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

nation was scattered by the Romans, — a pe- 
riod of 1200 years. 

During that period the Eastern empires 
rose, flourished, and were overturned; the 
popular institutions of Greece struggled into 
existence, shone with splendid but transient 
lustre, and sank in the empire of Philip and 
Alexander; the kings of Rome reigned and 
were expelled ; the struggle between the peo- 
ple and the nobles (essentially royal, since 
they had derived their privileges from the 
kings) went on to the advantage of the former 
for a time, but ended at length in the empire 
of Augustus, which, beginning about the birth 
of Christ, was universal over the principal 
countries of the known world. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 39 



PAKT II. 



THE REPUBLICANISM OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIAN 
CHURCHES. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE DEMOCRATIC TENDENCIES OF THE GOSPEL OF 
JESUS CHRIST. 

When the apparent failure of the first ex- 
periment in establishing republican institu- 
tions was complete, the fulness of time had 
arrived for commencing the second. How was 
it to be attempted ? Not by clearing Pales- 
tine or any other land of its inhabitants, that 
there might be room for the erection of new 
institutions ; not by overthrowing any exist- 
ing government, that the fabric might rise 



40 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

amidst its ruins. But as in the former expe- 
riment a republican civil government had 
been established with religious institutions 
chosen separately from it by the people — now, 
while the existing civil government was not 
disturbed, republican religious institutions 
were silently planted. 

This was accomplished by the introduction 
of the gospel, which, while its highest design 
is the spiritual and eternal welfare of men, 
necessarily also affects their condition in this 
life. 

The civil and religious institutions of a na- 
tion have ever included the two great classes 
of causes by which its destiny is moulded. 
Consequently they are the two great elements 
in the problem which kings, rulers and states- 
men have to solve, and which students of his- 
tory seek to understand. 

Putting out of view the effect of the gospel 
upon the eternal welfare of men, our present 
inquiry is into its influence on their civil con- 
dition. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 41 



SECTION I. 

ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE TRUTH THAT IN RELIGIOUS MATTERS THE 
PEOPLE ARE INDEPENDENT OF THE CIVIL GOVERNMENT. 

Jesus Christ appeared on earth as a Di- 
vine teacher, in the midst of a despotism 
exercising power over both civil and religious 
affairs. Their authority over the former he 
did not oppose, with it he did not meddle 
except to declare that they at least who ac- 
knowledged it and partook of the advantages 
it conferred should respect it. " Eender unto 
Caesar the things that are Caesar's ," 

But their claim of authority in religious 
things he utterly disregarded, as having no 
foundation except in assumption maintained 
by force. He did not go to the civil authority 
for permission or privilege, but gathered the 
people around him as a right which he and 
they alike possessed. He selected the mes- 
sengers to proclaim his religion, and sent them 
into all the world to speak unto every creature. 

4* 



42 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

Thus he asserted their independence — with 
respect to religion — of all civil government, 
whether despotic or liberal. Power to restrict 
and silence them he knew existed, and would 
be abundantly exerted, even unto taking their 
lives. Of this he warned them. He placed 
no sword in their hand, but on the contrary 
strictly forbade their taking it. Flight and 
argument and suffering and Divine Provi- 
dence, were the only resources allowed them 
against even the wildest fury of absolute 
power. But the right of the civil government 
to restrict them, the Saviour utterly denied. 
They were to go forth everywhere in obe- 
dience to his command as their Sovereign 
Lord in religious things, and so far independ- 
ent of men. 

This principle was at utter variance with 
the theory and practice of mankind at the 
time it was laid down. The Saviour himself 
was the only being on earth who then under- 
stood it ; it has had to contend with the whole 
force of human power, amidst torrents of 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 43 

blood ; and is not yet thoroughly understood 
or allowed. But so far as it has prevailed, 
the boasted liberality of modern times con- 
sists in receiving as morally right and philo- 
sophically true that which was proclaimed 
and written at the beginning as the starting 
point of the gospel in the world. 



SECTION II. 

POPULAR MOVEMENT PRODUCED BY THE GOSPEL. 

The Saviour went about among the people. 
In every city and town and district of Pales- 
tine, He gathered them around him, address- 
ing his teaching mainly to them. He directed 
his disciples to pursue the same course, and 
to address not kings as such, or rulers, or 
nobles, or literary men, or privileged orders 
of any kind, but the human race, and every 
individual included in it. While he designed 
to reach all, He began not at the highest, but 



44 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

the lowest. " To the poor was the gospel 
preached." As he who would kindle a fire 
places his spark beneath the fuel, not upon its 
summit, so Christ, having " come to send fire 
on the earth," kindled it in the substratum 
of society. 

His mission and doctrine were pre-emi- 
nently adapted to reach and arouse the indi- 
vidual man — man as such ; as possessing in 
himself an essential importance, whatever 
his condition and wherever the bounds of his 
habitation had been assigned. 

Jesus Christ the Son of God had be- 
come man — had taken his station, not among 
kings and nobles, but in a low condition. 
His humiliation, while it was especially de- 
signed to make him "perfect" in bringing 
many unto eternal glory, also secured his 
efficiency in lifting up the heads in this life 
of the lowly and the oppressed. What con- 
sideration could be so adapted to thrill the 
bosom of man, to awaken his faculties, to 
brace his spirit? Placed in the midst of the 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 45 

works of God, he may well ask, What is 
man ? And the answer cannot fail to assure 
him of an importance that belongs to him in 
the judgment and by the gift of his Creator, 
who, amidst such glorious handiwork, has 
been mindful of hirn^ consulting his pleasure, 
providing for his wants, making him capable 
of "considering the heavens" with thought 
profound, and assigning him "dominion over 
all the earth." But when, in the prison- 
house into whose depths the lordly ones of 
his race had thrust him, and where he was 
slumbering in his chains beneath the pressure 
of military power, the Son of God stood by 
his side, clothed in feeble flesh like his own, 
and not ashamed to call him brother ; then 
did he rise up quickly, the chains fell from 
his hands, the iron gate opened before him, 
and he went forth in his strength. His spirit 
was stirred within him by the mighty truth, 
that to a nature which had been thus taken 
by his Creator upon himself, there belonged 
a dignity which no external grandeur could 



46 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

confer, and no transient poverty or oppression 
take away. 

The Saviour appealed to the con- 
science of man as the pre-eminent endow- 
ment of his nature, which should bend to no 
human authority, quail before no human 
power, and be subdued by no degree or con- 
tinuance of suffering. A being who has such 
a faculty conferred upon him, involving such 
a difficult and solemn mission, must possess 
an individual importance of which he cannot 
rightfully be deprived. If that faculty be 
appealed to, and that mission urged upon 
him, he must soon perceive his importance : 
if his conscience be obeyed and his duty 
performed, his personal importance will be 
asserted and maintained. 

Jesus Christ revealed a judgment to 
come, at which every man must appear; at 
which every man must render an account of 
himself to God : he who had sinned in com- 
parative ignorance to be held without excuse, 
so far as he knew or might have known his 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 47 

duty; and he who had enjoyed clear light 
to have the more required of him, and to be 
visited, if a transgressor, with heavier con- 
demnation. Both small and great, the poor 
and the rich, the feeble and the mighty, the 
bond and the free, must stand together at 
that day. A being who is on his way to such 
a judgment-seat, for whose trial the great 
white throne will be set in * heaven, has, 
whether he be clothed in rags or in purple, 
whether he wear a yoke on his neck or a 
crown on his head, an individual importance 
that cannot be alienated or lost. He who is 
to be called to a personal account amidst the 
innumerable myriads that will surround the 
judgment-throne, cannot be destitute of claim 
to consideration upon earth because he is 
only one of a mass. He who will have jus- 
tice done him at the bar of God, must not be 
oppressed or wronged by king, or magistrate, 
or master here. 

And — most marvellous of the truths pro- 
claimed by the gospel — Jesus Christ by 



48 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

THE GRACE OF GoD TASTED DEATH FOR 

every man, and thus became the propitia- 
tion for the sins of the whole world, through 
whom the offer of pardon for offences against 
God was procured for every creature. By 
receiving the abundance of grace and the gift 
of righteousness thus offered, any one of the 
human race, according to the announcement 
made, would acquire the privileges of a son 
of God. Though still, as a creature, subject 
to vanity in common with all mankind, the 
hope of deliverance was at once planted in 
his breast. Henceforth, his earnest expecta- 
tion stood with extended foot and out- 
stretched neck waiting for the liberty of the 
sons of God; as one, whom a besieging 
army has reduced to extremity, stands upon 
the tower, unsubdued, undismayed, intently 
watching the standard of his deliverer as it 
gleams on the mountain height. Nor could 
his expectation be put to shame. The mani- 
festation for which he looked would be made, 
either partially in this world, or gloriously in 






AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 49 

the next. Thus he was raised in spirit above 
the power of oppression, and while patiently 
enduring wrong, was acquiring a strength 
which rendered the infliction of wrong ha- 
zardous to the oppressor. 

Any one who deliberately risks his 
life, for any purpose and from any motive, 
wins a degree of importance which must be 
felt. When, in its early history, Eome was 
besieged by a victorious army, a young man 
resolved to attempt the life of its leader at 
the risk of his own. Having killed one 
whom he mistook for the king, he was called 
to account. He lamented his ignorance of 
the royal person ; held his right hand in the 
flame until it was consumed, and informed 
the king that three hundred young men at 
Rome had like himself resolved to risk their 
lives in taking his. Porsenna thought him- 
self more than able to encounter all Rome, so 
long as they acted on the ordinary principles 
of human nature; but three hundred young 
men, who had made up their minds to die, 



50 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

he did not dare to encounter, and conse- 
quently he proposed terms for an immediate 
peace. 

So is it everywhere and in all circum- 
stances where life is deliberately and intelli- 
gently risked, whether in war or peace — by 
the mighty or the weak — -by man or woman. 
They who do it, often when every thing else 
is against them, exalt themselves to notice 
upon the pinnacle of success, or, if they fall, 
leave behind them an influence which may 
be felt by distant nations and to the latest 
times. When the founder of the Christian 
religion was lifted up upon the cross, he 
secured the gathering of all men unto him : 
and when his disciples counted not their lives 
dear to them, refused not death if they could 
be fairly proved to have deserved it, and 
shrank not from it if arbitrary power chose 
to inflict it, then was individual character 
brought prominently to view. Its rights were 
vindicated at the moment when most tram- 
pled on; when it was weak, then it became 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 51 

strong; and when it sank in death, the per- 
petuity of its influence was secured. 

The gospel actually produced the move- 
ment among the people which its principles 
were so well adapted to arouse. 

Wherever Jesus Christ went, multitudes 
crowded around him. His fame spread 
abroad, awakening, arousing, stimulating the 
people. They who received not his teaching 
concerning the life to come, were greatly ex- 
cited with hope concerning this life. They 
desired to make him their king. They went 
forth to meet him, crying, " Blessed is the 
King of Israel." They who held the people 
in subjection trembled for their power, and 
said to each other — " Perceive ye how ye 
prevail nothing? behold the world is gone 
after him." ; 

After his ascension, when his disciples pro- 
claimed the gospel, the multitude were asto- 
nished and excited with intense emotion. 
Jerusalem was filled with the doctrine. The 
Senate of Israel were in great perplexity, 



52 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

unable to foresee what would be the result 
of the movement, at a loss what to do in 
order to arrest it, and afraid to resort to vio- 
lence lest the people should rise in their 
strength against them. 

When the heralds of the gospel were driven 
out of Jerusalem, they went everywhere pro- 
claiming it, and everywhere it produced the 
same stirring up of the people. They who 
received it, hailed it with joy ; they who re- 
jected it, violently opposed it : both kinds of 
treatment were the counterparts of the popu- 
lar movement which we seek to trace. 

Mental activity was stimulated by the as- 
semblage of the people to hear the new doc- 
trine ; by the miracles wrought openly to 
attest it ; by daily examination of the written 
evidence adduced for it; by public discussion, 
and by judicial trials. 

Sometimes the people with one accord gave 
heed : sometimes they were divided ; some- 
times they made an assault upon the speakers. 
At one place opposition was excited by grave 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 53 

men and honourable women; at another, 
wretches of the baser sort gathered the mob 
and set the city in an uproar. In one city, 
craftsmen, alarmed for the profits of their 
trade, assembled together shouting, " Great is 
Diana;" in another, national prejudice, indig- 
nant at the intrusion of foreigners and furious 
at the progress of the new system, burst into 
a tempest before which the Roman guard 
faltered, retreated to their castle, and saved 
the prisoner intrusted to them by a secret 
midnight march. 

The proclaimers of the gospel were accused 
of troubling cities, of fomenting treason, 
of turning the world upside down. They 
were brought before magistrates of all grades, 
and stood even at the Imperial throne. Some 
of these officers wisely concluded to let them 
alone; some with stern rebuke drove their 
accusers from the tribunal; some courted 
bribes from the one party and popularity 
from the other: some treated the prisoners 

kindly; others threatened them, beat them, 

5* 



54 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

shut them up in prison, and put them to vio- 
lent deaths. 

In no place did the gospel fail to attract 
notice and stir up popular activity. Starting 
from the meanest town of a despised land, it 
became powerful by the number of its adhe- 
rents in the most splendid ^cities of Asia. 
Entering Europe at the outskirts of a city, and 
being first spoken there to women, it startled 
the Greeks as the trumpet blast of their own 
criers ; called into exercise their logic, their 
wisdom, their curiosity ; forced the Epicurean 
and the Stoic into strange alliance, and 
crowded Mars' Hill with a brilliant array of 
excited intellect around a barbarian babbler. 

The gospel was silently introduced into 
Eome, probably by some of the strangers 
from that city who had been at Jerusalem 
on the day of Pentecost. 

The number of converts rapidly increased, 
chiefly from the humbler classes, but including 
some also of high rank. They soon attracted 
the notice of the civil power, and were spoken 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 55 

of in distant cities as converts to the new reli- 
gion. A similar result was witnessed through- 
out the empire. In cities, towns, villages and 
country districts, vast numbers of Christians 
were soon found. In the concise phrase of 
an historian* whose language is always to be 
assigned its utmost force, there was of them 
" ingens multitudo." According to the turgid 
eloquence of an apologist,f the wings of whose 
flight always need clipping, u If the numer- 
ous host of Christians had retired from the 
empire into some remote region, the loss of so 
many men would have left a hideous gap and 
inflicted a shameful scar on the government. 
It would have stood aghast at its desolation 
and been struck dumb at the silence and 
horror of nature, as if the whole world had 
departed." 

This multitude were linked together as one 
people. They spake of themselves as u We," 
and were described by others as "They," the 
" Christians," the " Nazarenes," the "Atheists." 

* Tacitus. f Tertullian. 



56 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

Thus they became a people in the midst of an 
empire. 

Scattered abroad everywhere, they pressed 
with a constant force against the imperial 
authority. In matters purely civil their re- 
ligion directed them to obey the emperor. 
" Ye must needs be subject, not only for wrath, 
but also for conscience sake."* But the pagan 
religion was so interwoven with the state, 
that it was impossible for any man to re- 
nounce the one without often disobeying the 
other. In domestic arrangements, in amuse- 
ments, in daily labour, in the camp, the forum 
and the senate, the national religion, clothed 
with the authority of law, asserted its juris- 
diction. Consequently Christians were com- 
pelled to disobey the laws in proportion as 
they obeyed their conscience and God. From 
their refusal to adorn their doors with ever- 
greens, to their denial of divine honours to the 
emperor, their action with respect to religion 
was a continued course of rebellion. And as 

* Rom. xiii. 5. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 57 

rebellion against any law, however unimport- 
ant in itself, is an attack against the sovereign 
authority, if not subdued it weakens that 
authority and tends to overturn it. A rebel- 
lion that acquired so many adherents, that 
extended to all matters of religion, and that 
no lenity could allure, no rage subdue, must 
at last have caused the destruction of the 
empire, if an unlooked-for movement had 
not arrested the process. 

Long ago, we are told, the dead body of a 
noble lady was buried, and a tomb of solid 
masonry erected over it. But living seed were, 
somehow, lodged in the soil, from which seven 
trees sprang up, making their way through 
the crevices of the tomb, and, by their con- 
stant, expanding energy, forcing apart the ce- 
ment, clamps, and blocks of marble, until the 
whole was shaken : — then with their branches 
they embraced the fragments, bound them 
together, and prevented for a time their fall. 
So when freedom was buried at Rome, and 
the emperors were rearing the massive struc- 



58 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

ture of despotism over the grave, the good 
seed of the kingdom of heaven was widely 
diffused, from which sprang trees of religious 
liberty, not seven in number, nor seventy times 
seven, but innumerable. They insinuated 
themselves into every aperture, and, growing 
with irrepressible energy, forced asunder ce- 
ment and clamps and marble, until the vast 
fabric tottered in every part ; then their wide- 
spread branches, intertwining themselves 
among the fragments, bound them together, 
and delayed their fall. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 59 



CHAPTER II. 

THE ORGANIZATION OF REPUBLICAN CHURCHES. 

The democracy which the gospel aroused, 
it organized into republics. 

Here we assert that every primitive Chris- 
tian church was a republic; and proceed to 
establish the vitally important proposition, by 
showing the republican characteristics, first, 
of the churches; secondly, of their officers. 



SECTION I. 

THE REPUBLICAN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHUBCHES. 

1. Every company of professed believers in 
Christ was a church. They derived the right 
to assemble together from their individual 
rights as believers, expressly sanctioned by 



60 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

Him whose authority they acknowledged. 
" Where two or three are gathered to- 
gether IN MY NAME, THERE AM I IN THE 

midst of them." This is a full and sufficient 
charter for all who choose to avail themselves 
of it. It recognises the right of assembling 
together as belonging to two — the smallest 
number that can possibly exercise it. It de- 
fines the character of the assembly — in the 
name of Christ — as distinguished from every 
other that can be gathered in the world. It 
guaranties to it his presence — the highest 
privilege that can be conferred upon men, and 
the source of all other privileges and advan- 
tages. Every such assembly, whether small 
or large, is a church of Christ before its offi- 
cers are appointed; giving existence to them, 
not deriving existence from them ; as a tree 
has existence before the branches, even the 
loftiest of them. If they boast, yet they bear 
not the root, but the root bears them. 

A strong confirmation of the position here 
maintained is afforded by the apostolic epis- 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 61 

ties. These are all addressed to the churches, 
while their officers are either not referred to 
at all, or only as having their place in the 
church. The importance of this remark re- 
quires the evidence which supports it to be 
adduced in detail. 

The epistle standing first in the received 
arrangement, written to the church in the 
Imperial city, whose officers, according to the 
prophetic discernment of the apostle, were at 
length to claim supreme authority over that 
and all other churches, is addressed " to all 
in Rome, beloved of God, called to be saints." 
It contains not the slightest intimation that 
officers existed in the church, until, in the 
exhortations "to every man," they come to 
view in their place. The subsequent epistles 
are addressed "to the church of God which 
is at Corinth ;" " to the churches of Galatia ;" 
"to the saints at Ephesus;" "to all in Christ 
Jesus, in Philippi," with the officers; "to the 
saints and faithful brethren at Colosse ;" " to 
the church of the Thessalonians ;" " to the 



62 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

holy brethren, partakers of the heavenly call- 
ing;" " to the twelve tribes f " to the strangers 
scattered through Asia Minor who had ob- 
tained precious faith f to Christians generally, 
and "to the seven churches of Asia/' with a 
special message " to the angel of each church." 

2. Each church was an independent body. 
Its independence was a necessary attribute 
of its existence. As every man acquires a 
right to liberty by being born, so every com- 
pany of believers acquires a right to indepen- 
dence by associating together in the name of 
Christ. We have to inquire whether at the 
beginning the right was acknowledged and 
guarantied. 

With reference to the church at Jerusalem, 
the answer is on the surface. At first, it 
consisted of those who, at or before the ascen- 
sion of Christ, had become his disciples. It 
was enlarged by the addition of those who 
gladly received the word of the apostles, and 
who had precisely the same right to the pri- 
vileges of the church as the original company 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 63 

themselves. That this right was fully re- 
cognised is evident from the entire narrative 
in the Acts. 

If, therefore, the gospel had been designed 
for the Jews only, its indefinite extension 
among them would not have endangered the 
independence of the church. But as it was 
for the world, the principles upon which its colo- 
nies should be established were of vital import- 
ance to their liberty. Two main questions 
were to be answered. 1st. Should the gos- 
pel be extended at all to the nations? If so, 
on what terms, of equality or subordination ; 
of independence or vassalage ? 2d. Should 
it be extended only by those who had been 
appointed by Christ while on earth, together 
with such as should derive authority from 
them? In other words, Should a patent 
right be held by the original apostles, their 
successors and authorized agents ? 

(1.) Should Christianity be given to the 
nations, and on what terms? It seems 
strange that any hesitation should have been 



64 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

felt by the disciples after their Master's in- 
junction — "Go into all the world — to every 
creature ;" yet such was the strength of na- 
tional prejudice that, when first scattered 
abroad from Jerusalem, they preached to 
Jews only. This narrowness of mind was to 
be enlarged. One of the apostles received a 
special command to speak unto a company 
of Gentiles, and to treat them as brethren. 
While obeying the command, he saw the 
Holy Ghost descend on the company. Im- 
mediately he drew the all-important conclu- 
sion, that since the Gentiles had received 
directly from God the very same gift as the 
believing Jews, they were entitled to equal 
privileges in the church. Some at Jerusalem 
arraigned his conduct, but he summed up 
his defence by the question — " Forasmuch as 
God gave them the like gift as unto us, what 
was 7, that I could withstand God?" Thus it 
appears that the reception of the Gentiles 
was not a concession from men, but a 
grant from God, on the same terms and at- 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 65 

tested in the same manner as had been done 
towards the original company of converts. 
Equality of rights was secured to all by the 
exercise of His sovereignty who doeth what 
he will with his own. But. 

(2.) Should Christianity be extended only 
by those who had been appointed by Christ 
when on earth, together with such as should 
derive authority from them ? We know not 
whether this question was at first entertained 
by the apostles themselves. They were the 
appointed witnesses, and knew of none others. 
If, therefore, they supposed that all the work 
rested on them, they are not to be censured 
for a supposition which was apparently war- 
ranted by the facts at first before them. But 
to us, who know the pretensions which have 
subsequently arisen to the possession of ex- 
clusive apostolic authority transmitted by an 
unbroken succession, the question is vastly 
important. 

If the letters patent were ever issued, they 
must have been at the beginning. The so- 

6* 



66 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

called chain of succession professes to have 
passed through many dark places, in which 
the difficulty of ascertaining whether it be 
broken increases in proportion to the proba- 
bility that it has been broken. This proba- 
bility has been set forth in terms so strong, 
by a logic which even the mitre cannot con- 
fuse or corrupt, that we wonder how any 
sane man can risk the slightest interests on 
the continuity of such a chain.* But, with- 
out attempting to trace it in its course, 
let us advance at once to the daylight of 
the apostolic age, and if we find that the first 
link was never attached either to James, or 
Cephas, or John, or any other of " those who 
seemed to be pillars" we need not concern 
ourselves whether the remaining links be 
continuous or broken, or whether they be 
formed of cobweb, of iron, or perchance of 
gold. 

The authority of the twelve apostles is 
not disputed, but affirmed. The question is 

* See Archbishop Whateley's " Kingdom of Christ." 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 67 

whether it was exclusive, and could be trans- 
mitted to others only by them. The answer 
is at hand. The middle wall of partition 
which had excluded the Gentiles was, as we 
have seen, broken down by the act of God, 
but the work of establishing Christianity 
among them was yet scarcely begun. By 
what instrumentality was it to be accom- 
plished? Here the Divine sovereignty was 
signally displayed. While the twelve apos- 
tles were sent abroad to various regions, it 
pleased God to call one by his grace to be 
The Apostle of the Gentiles, whose 
agency should be much greater than that of 
all the rest in declaring, by inspiration, the 
laws of Christianity, and in diffusing it abroad, 
especially in those western regions which 
have ever since exerted such paramount in- 
fluence over the civil and religious destiny 
of. the world, and in which the assumption 
of exclusive apostolic authority, transmitted 
by regular descent, has produced the greatest 
results. The appointment of this apostle 



68 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

was surely the most important event that 
could occur among Christians after the ascen- 
sion of their Lord and the descent of the 
Holy Spirit. Here, if at all, ought the chain 
of succession to begin. Such an officer, if 
not one of the original twelve, ought at least 
to have been appointed by them. If they 
were the heart of the system, the main artery 
ought to go out from them. But how sig- 
nally different was the fact. Saul of Tarsus 
was taken by the direct agency of Christ 
from a state of bitter hostility against him, 
and set apart to be an apostle without the 
intervention of a human being, except "a 
disciple at Damascus" to baptize him. 

His official standing was often questioned, 
because it had not been derived from the 
twelve. Among the numerous assertions of 
it into which he was thus driven, the most 
decisive is in the Epistle to the Galatians. 
He there declares that his apostleship was 
neither "from men" as the source, nor hy man 
as the channel, but immediately from God ; 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 69 

that prior to its exercise, he had not con- 
ferred with men, nor even gone to meet those 
who were apostles before him; that three 
years of his official career had elapsed before 
he saw any of them, and then only two of 
them, and for a few days ; that fourteen years 
had been spent in arduous labours before a 
more explicit understanding with his col- 
leagues became necessary, because of pre- 
tenders who, arrogating to themselves author- 
ity as if from Jerusalem, denied his office and 
denounced his teaching. He perceived that 
their design was to spy out the liberty of the 
Gentiles, and bring them into bondage. Con- 
sequently, in order that the truth might be 
preserved, he did not, even for an instant, 
yield to them, but entered into conference 
with his fellow apostles, as with his peers, in 
whose name these pretenders assumed to act. 
The result w T as in the highest degree satis- 
factory. The apostles did not deny his 
authority; they claimed no superiority or 
jurisdiction over him ; they pretended to no 



j REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

transmission to him of rights patented to 
them ; they insinuated no deficiency in him. 
On the contrary, perceiving the grace given 
him, they extended to him the right hand of 
fellowship, and cordially assented to the di- 
vision of labour between them. Thus, while 
his apostleship, without transmission by hu- 
man hands, was recognised, the equal rights 
of all the brethren with him were also se- 
cured. 

At the same time, the church at Jerusalem 
publicly declared that national churches were, 
and of right ought to be, independent of all 
allegiance and responsibility to herself. The 
same false teachers who, pretending authority 
from Jerusalem, denied Paul's apostleship, 
also contradicted his teaching, and attempted 
to impose the rites of Judaism upon the Gen- 
tiles. This produced much earnest discus- 
sion, and at length a deputation to Jerusa- 
lem. The assembly which convened there 
to consider the subject has been called '" the 
first general council," with how little reason 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 7J 

will appear, if we take notice that it consisted 
of the whole church at Jerusalem, and a de- 
legation, probably, from Antioch alone, al- 
though other churches were interested in the 
reference. The latter went to complain to 
the former, and to inquire of them concern- 
ing those who in their name were imposing 
burdens on the Gentiles. 

The resolution, which, after mature delibe- 
ration, was unanimously adopted by the mo- 
ther church, disclaims any authority over the 
churches of other lands. Its preamble sets 
forth the ground upon which alone they 
interfere in the premises. They do not say, 
"Forasmuch as you are rightfully under our 
jurisdiction, and as we are responsible to God for 
you;' but "Forasmuch as we have heard that 
certain who went out from us have trou- 
bled you with words subverting your souls, to 
whom we gave no commandment :" therefore, we 
unanimously disavow their doctrine, and de- 
clare unto you our judgment, in which we 
have the guidance of the Holy Spirit, that 



72 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

"no greater burden is to be imposed upon you 
than these following necessary things/' and 
while from these it is all-important that you 
continue pure, such a result is hot to be 
aimed at by an unwarrantable exercise by us 
of discipline over you, but from them you are, 
as free and independent churches, to "guard 
yourselves" 

It is argued that this judgment of the mo- 
ther church was authoritative, since, when 
Paul visited the churches which he had 
planted, "he delivered them the decrees to 
keep that had been ordained." Let the strong- 
est signification be assigned to the words " de- 
cree" and "ordained." It will then follow that 
the action of the church at Jerusalem had the 
force of law upon those over whom their juris- 
diction extended. Who were they ? Not the 
Gentile churches, but those of their own number 
who had gone forth teaching in their name, and 
as if by their authority. For, why did Paul 
give his churches this decree ? Not that they 
might govern their personal conduct by it. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 73 

They already abstained from the actions spe- 
cified. The doctrine which Paul had taught 
them was not deficient in such essential par- 
ticulars. He expressly declared that having 
received it complete from Christ, he neither 
permitted any man to add unto it, nor did 
the apostles at Jerusalem attempt to do so. 
For what purpose, therefore, would his 
churches need to "guard the decrees?" 
Plainly, that when they were " troubled with 
words" from any one who professed to come 
in the name of the church at Jerusalem, they 
might " stop his mouth" by adducing from 
his own church the written disavowal of his 
mission and doctrine, and the command to 
him to impose no such burdens upon any be- 
lieving Gentiles. 

3. Each church elected its own officers. 

ELECTION OF AN APOSTLE. 

At the resurrection of Christ he found in 
the college of apostles whom he had appoint- 
ed a vacancy, occasioned by the death of Ju- 



74 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

das. As He did not see proper to fill it by 
his own act, the choice devolved, not on the 
apostles alone, but on the whole church. 
Peter arose in the midst of the disciples, (who 
then numbered one hundred and twenty,) 
stated the exigency that existed, and the 
qualifications requisite in a candidate for the 
office. Two persons were then nominated 
by the disciples, one of whom they elected. 
The choice was determined by " giving lots," 
which was one of the methods employed 
among the Greeks in electing public officers. 
It is not material to the argument to know 
in what manner the lots were given. The 
essential point is that the disciples gave their 
lots. It was an election by the church, in 
whatever way it was made. The successful 
candidate "was numbered with the apostles." 
The word here used denotes,, according to its 
strict signification, that he was placed by vote 
among the apostles. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 75 

ELECTION OF DEACONS. 

When the sudden increase of the church re- 
quired that a public provision should be made 
for the strangers who had been so unexpect- 
edly detained in Jerusalem, the funds were na- 
turally placed in the apostles' hands. But they 
soon saw the necessity of relieving themselves 
of such business, not only that they might be 
free to attend to their peculiar duties, but 
doubtless, also, because they foresaw the 
evils which would arise from the funds of 
the church being in the hands of the same 
officers who exercised spiritual authority. 
They therefore " called together the multitude 
of the disciples" and proposed that they should 
" select for themselves" seven men of suitable 
qualifications, to take charge of the pecuniary 
affairs. The proposition "pleased the whole 
church" and they accordingly elected ("chose 
out for themselves") the seven men, whom the 
apostles proceeded to install into office. 

ELECTION TO OFFICE THE GENERAL PRACTICE. 

Thus, at the very beginning of Christianity, 



76 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

an apostle, and seven very important 
officers, were elected by the universal suf- 
frage of the church. These elections, held 
at the instance of the apostles, we are war- 
ranted in regarding as normal precedents to 
be generally imitated. It remains to inquire 
whether, in fact, the imitation was prac- 
tised. 

We have already shown that the Epistles 
are addressed to the churches, as, under God, 
the source of action and government. It is 
fair to conclude that the choice of their own 
officers — a privilege resting on the very foun- 
dation-stone of sovereignty, and not attended 
with greater difficulty than others clearly 
belonging to them— would certainly be se- 
cured to them. Nor is there any intimation 
in the New Testament that the apostles au- 
thoritatively appointed church officers irre- 
spective of the choice of the people. Paul 
and Barnabas " ordained elders." Timothy 
was directed to commit the truth to faithful 
men, and Titus to ordain elders. But instal- 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 77 

lation into office is distinct from election to 
office. In modern times, a diocesan bishop 
" institutes" a rector who has been elected 
by the people ; a presbytery installs a pastor 
who has been elected by the people ; a judge 
administers the oath of office to a governor 
or president who has been elected by the 
people. Therefore, the fact that apostles, 
their associates, and deputies ordained church 
officers, is no proof that these had not been 
previously elected by the church. This in- 
ference is confirmed by the identity of the 
word employed in the direction to Titus — 
xai*<n n <5ris — with that used by the apostles 
when they offered to install into office the 
deacons who should be elected by the whole 
church. Since the act of the apostles was 
subsequent to an election by the church, 
there is nothing to diminish the previous 
probability that the similar act of Titus was 
tc follow a similar election. 

Finding, clearly recorded, the election of an 

apostle as the first act of the church, and of 

7* 



78 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

the first officers appointed to take charge of 
pecuniary affairs ; finding, fully portrayed, 
popular forms of government, of which the 
election of officers is an almost essential fea- 
ture; meeting no accounts of appointment 
to office that are inconsistent with a previous 
election by the church, we also find repeated 
records of officers having been elected for the 
performance of specific duties. Some of these 
were the messengers of the churches to con- 
vey their contributions to distant brethren. 
Of one it is expressly added, not only that 
his praise was in the churches, but that he 
had been chosen by the churches to the work. 
When the church at Jerusalem heard of the 
spread of the truth, they sent forth Barnabas 
to aid in its advance. When the discussion 
arose at Antioch with the Judaizing teachers, 
the church determined to send Paul, Barnabas, 
and others to Jerusalem concerning it. In 
reply, it pleased the apostles and elders, with the 
whole church, to send chosen men to Antioch. 
When in the Corinthian church there arose 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 79 

a division with reference to Apollos, Paul 
recognised their right to have him as their 
minister, if they desired it; for he wrote to 
them — " As touching our brother Apollos, I 
greatly desired him to come unto you, but 
his will was not at all to come now." 

Passing to uninspired history, we find that 
churches in the apostolic age elected their 
pastors. Clement, the first pastor of the 
church at Rome whose office is clear from all 
doubt, was chosen by the unanimous voice 
of the church. He also declares that of- 
ficers were ordained (using the same word — 
xa$tofijiit — as designates the installation of 
deacons and of elders) at first by the apos- 
tles, and afterwards by other distinguished 
men, " the whole church having given their con- 
sent." This was plainly the extension of the 
practice of the church, as recorded in the 
New Testament. The restriction gradually 
placed on elections, (as we shall soon have 
occasion to trace it,) until they were at length 
entirely wrested from the people, will further 



80 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

illustrate the position, that they could have 
been introduced only at the beginning. 

REPUBLICAN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE OFEICERS OP 
CHURCHES. 

1. There ivas a plurality of officers in each 
church. 

In the church at Jerusalem were the apos- 
tles and elders ; in that at Antioch, prophets 
and teachers. Paul and Barnabas ordained 
elders in every church. In the church at 
Ephesus were the elders. In that at Philippi, 
bishops and deacons. Titus ordained elders 
in every city. 

2. There was equality of rank among the 
officers. 

When Paul sent for the elders of the church 
at Ephesus, he addressed them together, as 
being equals in rank, exercising the same 
office, and being subject to the same respon- 
sibility. They had a joint guardianship over 
the church, and were consequently directed 
to take heed to all the flock over which 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 81 

the Holy Spirit had made them overseers, 
(srtL6xo7iov$,) to feed the church of God, which 
He had purchased with His own blood. 

The deacons were not subordinate to the 
elders. They had different duties assigned 
them, and are not to be compared as to rank 
with the elders, either as being greater or 
less. Both offices required men of exalted 
and tried character. B^ comparing the qua- 
lifications specified in the directions to Timo- 
thy, it will appear that the deacons were to 
be of equal standing with the elders, except 
that teaching formed no part of their official 
duty. So far from their being in an inferior 
subordinate position, it is declared that they 
who executed their office well purchased for 
themselves a good degree — paOpov xa-kov — an 
honourable standing. 

3. Every church had its own officers, whose 
authority was exercised in it alone. 

This is evident from what has been already 
shown. The church at Jerusalem had their 
own elders. That at Antioch their pastors 



82 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

and teachers. The churches at Ephesus and 
at Philippi had each their own bishops. It 
is unnecessary to dwell longer on this point 
at present, because, in tracing the change 
which was gradually wrought in the institu- 
tions of the churches, we shall have occasion 
to see how long even the growing authority 
of a bishop continued to be limited to a single 
church. 

Thus it clearly appears from the New Tes- 
tament, that every primitive Christian church 
was an independent republic. 

4. Several rights, resulting from their inde- 
pendence, were probably exercised at an early 
period, perhaps from the beginning, but are 
not specified or enjoined in the New Testa- 
ment. Of these, two may be mentioned — 
the right of the officers to choose a president, 
and of the churches to form associations 
among themselves. 

PRESIDING OFFICER. 

It is natural, if not indispensable, for every 
board of officers to choose a president. This 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 83 

choice may be made at every meeting, or for 
a stated period, or for life. Nor does such 
an officer necessarily destroy the republican 
character of the organization at whose head 
he is placed. Every town meeting has its 
chairman, every municipal council, every 
legislative body, every commonwealth has 
its presiding officer. They do not on this ac- 
count cease to be republican. Yet it is mani- 
fest, that according to the length of time 
during which the same person continues to 
preside, and to the degree of power which is 
granted or allowed him, will be the ease with 
which the republic may be transformed into 
a monarchy. 

ASSOCIATION OF CHURCHES. 

The other right to which we referred is 
that which any number of churches has, to 
form associations among themselves. This 
arises directly from the independence of each 
church. "They may contract alliances." 
As any number of persons may unite them- 
selves into a church, so any number of 



84 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

churches may associate themselves into a 
synod, council, convention, assembly, binding 
the whole by such rules, and delegating to it 
such powers as may seem to them expedient. 
This is the basis upon which rests the vali- 
dity of the early councils, and of all later 
similar associations. Whether their lawful 
authority be greater or less, having the force 
of law, or only of advice, depends on the 
powers which the associating churches dele- 
gated to the council at its formation, and 
continue unrevoked. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 85 



CHAPTEK III. 

THE RISE OF PRELACY IN THE CHRISTIAN CHURCHES 

"We come now to the question — How were 
these republican institutions changed into 
monarchical ? The answer may be stated in 
a single line — By assimilation to the civil 

AUTHORITY. 

There was placed in the midst of a civil 
government which all proceeded from the 
will of one man, a system of republican reli- 
gious institutions. These Christ designed 
should extend everywhere, and be adhered 
to with all fidelity. The contrariety between 
them and the despotic character of the exist- 
ing civil government, he had deliberately cho- 
sen and ordained as an essential feature of his 
church. Some of his disciples having, while 
he was on earth, aspired to the chief places 



86 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

in his kingdom, which they imagined was of 
an earthly nature, he seized the opportunity 
to give instruction of fundamental and per- 
manent importance. Calling the twelve 
around him, he said: "Ye know that they who 
are accounted to rule over the Gentiles exercise 
lordship over them, and their great ones exercise 
authority upon them. But so shall it not 
be among you; but whosoever will be great 
among you shall be your minister, and whoso- 
ever of you will be chief est shall be the servant 

of air 

Had the contrariety, thus positively com- 
manded, between the republican churches and 
the imperial government been maintained, 
the latter would have been restrained, soften- 
ed, and remodelled. It was greatly influenced 
and endangered, because of the vital energy 
with which the principles of Christianity were 
at first diffused. But instead of intelligently 
and resolutely adhering to the direction, — 
" So shall it not be among you" — the officers of 
churches gradually, unconsciously, arrogantly 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 87 

imitated the lordship and authority which 
were exercised around them everywhere, at 
all times, and in all matters, and to which 
their brethren and themselves were constant- 
ly accustomed to yield. Thus situated, it 
was scarcely possible to avoid the imitation 
entirely ; the people would not notice it, or be 
alarmed at its rise and progress. Their whole 
lives were moving on under royal authority, 
and if in their midst another similar force 
should begin and increase, it would at first 
exert no perceptible influence on their con- 
dition, nor would they dream of what would 
be its ultimate strength and results. 

The imitation took place both in the spirit 
and manner of executing the republican offices, 
and in the actual elevation of one man over 
the other officers and over the church. At 
first, as we have seen, a plurality of bishops 
existed in each church. To one of these, at 
an early period, perhaps from the beginning, 
the office of president was assigned. This 
may have been done either informally, by a 



88 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

tacit yielding to the oldest or the most gifted 
presbyter, or by a regular election. But, in 
whatever way he obtained the office, the pre- 
sident at first neither claimed nor possessed 
any superiority of rank over his colleagues. 
His actions were performed in their name, by 
their permission, with their assent. There 
was, however, in his breast that love of au- 
thority which is natural to men. There was 
also near at hand a civil officer who, having 
been clothed with authority by the emperor, 
was exercising " lordship" over the people. 
The robes, the insignia, the power of the im- 
perial functionary were habitually in the view 
of the president, of the other bishops, and of 
the whole church. All their ideas were im- 
bibed and fostered in the atmosphere of of- 
ficial authority. Their whole lives, all the 
circumstances of their condition, were affected 
and controlled by official power. 

Amidst such influences, a change imper- 
ceptibly took place in the church. We need 
. not suppose that it began in every instance 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 89 

with the presiding officer. The other pres- 
byters were as likely to promote it as he. 
The idea that they were separated from the 
people as an " order/' and were elevated over 
them as rulers, would be fostered in their 
breasts simultaneously with any notions 
which might be cherished by him of superior- 
ity to them and of authority over them. The 
growth in their own ideas would disincline 
them to oppose, would incline them to pro- 
mote, the similar growth in his. They would 
be as ready to yield authority as he would be 
to claim it. Perhaps, in some instances they 
pressed upon him assumptions which he was 
not yet willing or ready to attempt. 

The change would be manifested at first in 
the tone and manner of the officer in execut- 
ing his undoubted duties. His actions in the 
name of his colleagues and of his church would, 
gradually, be performed in his own. That 
which they yielded unconsciously, or as a 
favour, or for convenience, he would retain 
as a prerogative conferred from heaven. 

8* 



90 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

That which began by permission of the 
church, was transformed, in its progress, to 
authority over the church. 

That such a change was likely to occur, 
might be inferred from the warning of Christ 
— " Ye know that the princes of the Gentiles 
exercise dominion over them, and they that 
are great exercise authority upon them. But 
it shall not be so among you ; but whosoever 
will be great among you, let him be your 
minister, and whosoever will be chief among 
you, let him be your servant ; even as the 
Son of man came, not to be ministered unto, 
but to minister." 

That the process commenced even in the 
time of the apostles, is evident from their 
writings. When Paul predicted the career 
of the " man of sin," whose iniquities would 
be accomplished by exalting himself, he testi- 
fied that the u mystery was already at work." 
When Peter exhorted the elders to feed the 
flock of God, he added the following remark- 
able counsel — "Neither as being lords over 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 91 

-the heritage." The last of the apostles, in 
his epistle to Gaius, says — " I wrote unto the 
church, but Diotrephes, who loveth to have 
the pre-eminence among them, receive th us not, 
* * prating against us with malicious words ; 
and not content therewith, neither doth he 
himself receive the brethren, and forbiddeth 
them that would, and casteth them out of the 
church." This describes a very respectable 
advance towards monarchy. If the succession 
of popes does not date from Diotrephes, he 
certainly ought to stand early in the list. He 
claimed the prerogative of recognising or of 
refusing to recognise the members and of- 
ficers of the church, and even of rejecting an 
apostle ; of putting offenders under interdict, 
and of pronouncing excommunication. These 
are some of the elements of papal power. The 
principal drawback to it was, that such things 
as lions, swords, stakes, crosses, and tortures 
were yet in the hands of the officer in the 
government-house over the way. 

The New Testament also exhibits the 



92 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED . 

growth of monarchical power in a single 
church during a definite period. When Paul, 
about the year 60, wished to give his parting 
counsel to the church of Ephesus, he sent for 
its bishops, whom he thus indicated as being 
then its official representatives. When the 
Saviour, about the close of the first century, 
sent his final message to the same church, he 
addressed one man, whom he thus indicated as 
being then its official representative. Thus 
we see that during forty years a change had 
been progressing in the Ephesian church. 
The equality of its officers had been yielding 
to the rise of one man in influence and power. 
The causes which produced this change in 
one place, existed everywhere. There was 
no such thing, at that time, as a republican 
civil government. All power was royal and 
despotic. Consequently, what was imitated 
in one place would be in another. The uni- 
versality of the change would also be pro- 
moted by the influence and example of the 
churches established in large and important 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 93 

cities. There the power of the civil govern- 
ment would be exercised more definitely and 
with greater splendour. Consequently, the 
tendency to imitation would be greater, and 
the church in its turn would be a centre of 
influence to less important places around it. 
Thus the original constitution, by which 
bishops had been appointed in the church at 
Ephesus, in the church at Philippi, and in 
the churches of every city, gradually verged 
towards the secondary state, expressed by 
the famous maxim, " No church without a 
bishop? 

The jurisdiction of each bishop, as he rose 
to prelacy, continued to be, in general, over 
only a single church. This is evident even 
from the maxim just quoted, " Nulla ecclesia 
sine episcopo." As there was not any church 
without a bishop, it follows that each bishop 
had only one church. The same thing is 
proved by the number of bishops. " In Asia 
Minor, a tract of land not much larger than 
Great Britain, there were about four hun- 



94 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

dred bishops."* At a conference between 
Augustine and the Donatists, about the year 
410, there were present between five and six 
hundred bishops from, as it would seem, a 
single province.^ From that part of Africa 
in which the Vandalic persecution raged, 
six hundred and sixty bishops fled, a great 
number were murdered or imprisoned, and 
many more remained in safety.J The whole 
number, according to this statement, could not 
have been less than one thousand. 

The episcopal office, enjoyed by so many, 
was at first regarded as possessing essentially 
equal authority and honour. But the change 
wrought, in imitation of the civil authority, 
gradually, yet completely, destroyed this 
equality. 

A series of gradations was established, by 
which the rank and jurisdiction of a bishop 
were exactly proportioned to the rank which 
the city, or town, or district in which his 

* Bingham. f Bishop Burnet. 

J Victor Uticensis, 5th cent. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 95 

church was contained, enjoyed in the em- 
pire. Bishops in the country came to be 
accounted inferior to those in towns; those 
in unimportant towns to those in more 
splendid cities. And as, among the latter, 
a few were pre-eminent in position and 
wealth, the rank of their civil rulers was 
the standard to which the dignity of their 
bishops approached. 

Over all, prior to the accession of Constat 
tine, three cities, Antioch, Alexandria, and 
Eome, enjoyed unquestioned superiority — the 
former two, as having been, prior to their con- 
quest, the seats of splendid monarchies; the 
latter as the capital of the empire. In ac- 
cordance with this superiority, we find the 
bishops of these three cities gradually rising 
in rank above all others. But these cities 
were not equal among themselves in civil 
rank. Antioch had depended for her gran- 
deur mainly on being a royal city. Hence, 
after the Syrian monarchy was overthrown, 
it gradually decayed, and ranked as the third 



96 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

city of the empire. After the conquest of 
Egypt, the importance of Alexandria was sus- 
tained by commerce. Hence it was accounted 
the second city. And as Rome was " the great 
city which reigned over all," none disputed 
the first place with her. In precise propor- 
tion to this scale of secular grandeur, was the 
rank of the bishops, as yielded at first, imper- 
ceptibly, by custom, and at length determined 
by the votes of councils. The bishop of 
Antioch was assigned the third position, the 
bishop of Alexandria the second, the bishop 
of Rome the first. 

These changes were in progress during the 
first three centuries. The imitation of the 
civil government was, however, necessarily 
imperfect while, so long as Christianity con- 
tinued a religion unrecognised by the state, 
there were many restraints upon the assump- 
tion, or at least the open manifestation of au- 
thority on the part of its officers. According 
to prophetic announcement, the civil power 
continued to hinder their exaltation until it 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 97 

was taken out of the way. But when the 
emperor embraced Christianity, there was a 
rapid maturing of the change. The authority 
which had been creeping on slowly in the 
footsteps of custom, was now suddenly pro- 
claimed by the majesty of law. 

The position which Constantine assumed 
in the church, itself identified the civil and 
ecclesiastical governments. He who exer- 
cised lordship over the nations, exercised it 
also over the churches. Thus the command 
of Christ, "So shall it not he among you" was 
reversed ; and thus the transformation of the 
churches, from independent associated repub- 
lics, to a consolidated department of the em- 
pire, was advanced. 

The emperor, having become the head of 
the church, proceeded to establish the hier- 
archy in close imitation of the civil rulers. 

The transfer of the capital to the shores 
of the Bosphorus furnished a signal illustra- 
tion of the fact, that the differences of rank 
among bishops was occasioned by the differ- 



98 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

ent degrees of secular importance possessed 
by the cities in which their churches were 
placed. Before the transfer, the bishop of 
Byzantium had been suffragan to the bishop 
of Heraclea ; after it, the bishop of Heraclea 
became suffragan to the bishop of Constan- 
tinople. 

The empire was divided, as to its secular 
government, into four prefectures ; these were 
subdivided into dioceses,* and the dioceses 
into provinces. The governors of the pro- 
vinces were subject to those of the dioceses, 
those of the dioceses to the prefects, and the 
prefects to the emperor. In like manner, the 
bishops of the provinces were subjected to the 
bishop of its metropolis ; the metropolitans of 
the provinces, to the metropolitan of their 
diocese ; and the metropolitans of the dioceses 
ranked below the bishops of the four cities, 
Eome, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constan- 



* It is important here to take notice that the term "diocese" 
which now is used only in an ecclesiastical sense, originally 
denoted only a division of the empire. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 99 

tinople, who, like the four prefects, were in- 
ferior only to the emperor. 

As the imperial grandeur of Constantinople 
increased, the importance of Antioch and 
Alexandria decayed, leaving the new capital, 
without rival, the first city of the East. In 
equal degree, the bishops thereof, thinking 
the see raised with the city, taking great 
state upon them, began to act as if they had 
been as much exalted above other bishops as 
their city was above other cities. This gave 
no small umbrage to their brethren j but the 
great interest the bishops of Constantinople 
had at court enabling them to oblige or dis- 
oblige whom they pleased, the other prelates 
chose rather to gain their favour by yielding 
to their ambition, than incur their displeasure 
by opposing it. In the year 383, the bishops 
of the capital were already so far exalted by 
the connivance and tacit consent of their col- 
leagues, as to take place of all the bishops of 
the East. Hence, at the oecumenical council 
held that year, Gregory, bishop of that city, 



100 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

was called to preside, though the patriarch 
of Alexandria, hitherto, according to the 
canons, the first after that of Rome, was pre- 
sent. In this act the council decreed that, ac- 
cording to established custom, (e. e. that bishops 
should rank according to the rank of their 
cities,) the bishop of new Rome should have the 
first place of honour after that of old Rome.* 
By this canon no positive jurisdiction was 
added to the first bishop of the East. He 
was only placed in rank and dignity next to 
the bishop of Rome. But having secured the 
title, he began to exercise gradually a corre- 
sponding degree of power. Beginning with 
Thrace, and alleging that Constantinople, 
which was the head of that diocese according 
to the civil polity, ought to be so too accord- 
ing to the ecclesiastical, which was founded 
on the civil, he assumed at once the title, 
claimed the rights, and exercised, within the 
limits of that diocese, all the jurisdiction pe- 
culiar to a patriarch. In the next place, he 

* Bower's History of the Popes. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 101 

succeeded in exercising the same jurisdiction 
in the dioceses of Pontus and Asia, and after- 
wards in the patriarchate of Antioch. Thus, 
in the course of a few years, out of the five 
dioceses into which the East was divided, 
four were subjected to the see of Constan- 
tinople. 

Application was now made to the council 
of Chalcedon, to confirm the authority which 
had been assumed. By that council the de- 
cree was re-enacted which placed the bishop 
of new Rome next in dignity to the bishop 
of old Rome; a patriarchal jurisdiction was 
vested in him over the dioceses of Pontus, 
Asia, and Thrace; and, in general, all the 
rights, prerogatives, and privileges were 
granted to him, without restriction or limita- 
tion, which had been granted to or enjoyed 
by the bishop of Rome. For doing so they 
assigned this reason : — " Whereas, the see of 
old Rome had been, not undeservedly, distin- 
guished by the fathers with some privileges, 
because that city was the seat of the empire, the 

9* 



102 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

fathers of Constantinople were prompted by the 
same motive to distinguish the most holy see 
of new Rome with equal privileges, thinking 
it fit that the city which they saw honoured 
with the empire and the senate, and equalled 
in every civil privilege to old Rome, should 
be likewise equalled to her in ecclesiastical 
matters."* 

Thus, as there were now two imperial cities 
which, without rivals, were exalted above all 
others, so the bishops of these two cities were 
exalted, without rivals, over those of all 
others. 

But the process of exaltation had not yet 
reached its height. Other rivalship having 
been distanced, Constantinople was now the 
great rival of Rome. Hitherto, the latter 
had been first in honour and power. She 
still enjoyed the prestige which the great- 
ness of a thousand years had given her, and 
which the upstart magnificence of the new 
city could not at once take away. But the 

* Bower. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 103 

tide was ebbing from the Tiber to the Bos- 
phorus. The presence, wealth, and majesty 
of the emperor had been removed from the 
one to the other. Hence, as the one was 
adorned and favoured, the other insensibly 
declined. In the rivalship between them, the 
western capital depended on the past; the 
eastern was elated with the triumph of the 
present. In such a contest, the victory, 
though it might be delayed, could not be 
doubtful. Eome at length felt the superior- 
ity of Constantinople. In like manner, the 
supremacy of the western bishop bowed be- 
fore that of the eastern, to whom the title of 
Universal Bishop was given by the empe- 
ror, and confirmed by the assembly of patri- 
archs, metropolitans, and senators. 

The pope, filled with jealousy at this exal- 
tation of his rival over himself, remonstrated 
and anathematized in vain. Although he 
wrote to the patriarch, the emperor, and the 
empress, denouncing the new title as " vain, 
ambitious, profane, impious, execrable, anti- 



104 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

christian, blasphemous, infernal, and diaboli- 
cal,"* it nevertheless continued to be given 
and employed. 

Phocas having seized the purple and put 
the imperial family to death, the pope has- 
tened to acknowledge his authority, ascribing 
his accession to the special providence of God, 
and calling on angels in heaven and men 
upon earth to render unto him glory and 
praise. The usurper, in return for this pre- 
cious benediction, took away the envied title 
from the patriarch, and gave it to the pope. 

But both bishops, having once obtained it, 
refused to renounce it. Thus, with equal 
titles they continued their contests for supre- 
macy, as opportunities were presented, until, 
in the ninth century, a furious storm arose 
between them, which swept over Christendom, 
and which, though sometimes lulled, con- 
tinued to rage though several centuries, and 
at last tore asunder the western from the 
eastern church. 

* Bower. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 1Q5 



CHAPTER IV. 

GROWTH OF THE POPE'S TEMPORAL POWER. 

Instead of following them through this 
long period, let us retrace our steps, and, con- 
fining our attention to the West, attempt to 
indicate the causes which promoted the 
growth of the bishop of Rome's temporal 
power. 

In this, Paul's prediction will still guide us 
through the labyrinth. The civil power was 
" taken out of the way? 

By the conversion of Constantine, this was 
done in one sense : the power of an enemy 
became that of a friend. By the transfer of 
the seat of government to Constantinople in 
the East, and to different cities in the West, 
the imperial power was also in a great mea- 
sure literally " taken out of the way" in the 
city of Rome. 



106 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

The first effect of the removal was, as we 
have seen, unfavourable to the pope's dignity. 
But, in its ultimate result, it promoted his 
rise to the summit of power. The withdrawal 
of the imperial splendour and patronage 
diminished, indeed, the reflected light which 
they had given him ; but it also enabled him, 
finally, to shine in his own. It threw him 
into the second place with respect to his rival 
and to the East ; but it greatly increased his 
strength at home and in the West. 

The supreme authority, which had been 
exercised at Home for a thousand years, 
could not all be transferred in a day, and by 
the will of one man. That which remained 
necessarily sought a channel in which to 
flow ; and although some of it might be se- 
cured by the vicar of the city in the empe- 
ror's name, the principal portion would read- 
ily unite itself to that spiritual dominion 
which had been rising there for three hun- 
dred years. 

The authority of the emperor over Rome 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 107 

was novf rapidly diminished by distance and 
neglect. The pope was ever on the spot, 
ready to press every claim, to improve every 
opportunity, and secure every advantage. 

The authority of the emperors was ren- 
dered precarious by their variable policy, by 
the violent deaths to which they fell victims, 
and the caprice which raised them to power. 
The ecclesiastical government was compara- 
tively steadfast ; its policy was regulated by 
one grand principle — the advancement of the 
see of Rome, by all means and at all times. 
This gave the only kind of unity and con- 
stancy to the administration of successive 
pontiffs which the Eoman church has ever 
possessed ; it inspired confidence amidst sur- 
rounding confusion; and secured, as perma- 
nent prerogatives, all that carelessness or 
weakness yielded, all that superstition of- 
fered, or that ignorance allowed. 

The authority of the emperors declined 
with the strength of the empire. Their time 
was consumed in vain pursuits, and their re- 



108 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

sources, extorted by oppression, were lavished 
in luxury. The legions were enervated by 
inactivity, were invited to rebellion by the 
relaxation of discipline, and fell by each 
other's hands on fields of civil strife. Much 
that the emperors thus lost the popes gained. 
They were freed from restraint, their lustre 
became more conspicuous in proportion as 
greater lights were put out, and their domi- 
nion increased in vigour as knowledge sank 
into ignorance and religion degenerated into 
superstition. 

When the northern tribes descended upon 
Rome, they were in some degree restrained 
by reverence for its religion, to which many 
of them had professed a nominal conversion 
and yielded a partial obedience. Consequent- 
ly, as their irruptions increased to a stream, 
a torrent, a flood, the authority of the pope 
was the only species which was not over- 
whelmed. His intercession often averted 
danger ; his protection was a shield around 
the oppressed ; his wealth, sometimes left un- 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 109 

touched amidst general pillage, ransomed the 
captive and relieved the distressed. 

As the result of these causes, combined 
with his growing spiritual dominion, the Ro- 
mans were gradually " accustomed to consider 
him as the first magistrate or prince of the 
city."* It is impossible, even for " infallibility" 
itself, to point out the moment or the act in 
which his influence over civil affairs passed 
into authority. 

"When, about the year 730, in the contest 
between the West and the East respecting the 
worship of images, the emperor, through the 
exarch of Ravenna, forbade their worship, the 
pope excommunicated the exarch and aroused 
Rome and Italy to rebellion. Having triumph- 
ed, " then at last," (according to some writers,) 
"the Romans saluted the pope as their lord 
and took an oath of allegiance to him j" ac- 
cording to others, they at least acknowledged 
no other ruler, but yielded to him the sove- 
reignty over them, in fact if not in form. 

* Gibbon. 
10 



HO REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

We have followed the bishop of Rome in 
his progress to the foot of the throne. The 
manner in which he was placed upon it de- 
serves profound attention. 

The royal authority in France had long 
been exercised by the mayor of the palace, 
nominally as the king's minister, but in fact 
as his master. At length Pepin, son of 
Charles Martel, not satisfied with this precar 
rious sovereignty, resolved to seize also the 
royal title. To render success certain, he first 
sent to the pope, asking — ' Who best deserved 
to be called king, he w r ho held the power or 
he w T ho enjoyed only the name?' His holi- 
ness having answered, that he who held the 
power should also enjoy the title, Pepin as- 
sembled the states of the realm, and engaged 
his friends to propose that he should be de- 
clared king in the place of Childeric. They 
enforced their motion by announcing that it 
was in accordance with the opinion and re- 
commendation of the pope. Without allow- 
ing time for deliberation, another party of his 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. m 

friends raised Pepin on a shield and proclaim- 
ed him king. The usurper, to give greater 
security to his dynasty, was anointed by the 
pope. 

In return for these services, he wrested from 
the Lombards the exarchate of Ravenna and the 
Pentapolis, and conferred them on the see of Rome. 
The grant was confirmed by Charlemagne, 
who, having extended his conquests, was 
crowned by the pope, Emperor of the West. 
u The royal unction of the kings of Israel was 
dexterously applied," the pope " assumed the 
character of a divine ambassador; German 
chieftains were transformed into the Lord's 
anointed, and this Jewish title has been dif- 
fused and maintained by the superstition and 
vanity of modern Europe."* 

And while the usurper and his conquering 
son, thus raised the pope to the rank of 
princes, they also, by consenting to the fiction 
that he possessed authority from Heaven to 
anoint them, laid the foundation for all the 

* Gibbon. 



112 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

assumption of dominion over kings which 
afterwards became so astounding, and which 
reached its culmination when an emperor of 
Germany — a successor of Charlemagne — for 
the exercise of jurisdiction in his own domi- 
nions, was excommunicated, deprived of the 
allegiance of his subjects, compelled to cross 
the Alps in depth of winter, and, laying aside 
his diadem and robes, to stand barefoot three 
days at the barrier of a castle, suing for ad- 
mission ; then to acknowledge the pope as his 
judge, on whose decision hung his crown and 
kingdom; and finally, having fallen in the 
struggle, was pursued with maledictions after 
death, the very bishop that buried him being 
excommunicated for the deed, and forced to 
cast his body out of the grave. 

Thus the temporal sovereignty of the 
bishop of Rome, and the figment of the 
Divine right of kings rose together over 
Europe, a double star of blood in a midnight 
sky. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. H3 



CHAPTER V. 

THE CORRUPTION OF CHRISTIANITY. 

In order to understand the subject under 
examination, we must bear in mind that, si- 
multaneously with the rise of ecclesiastical 
power, there was a growing corruption of 
Christian doctrine and practice. The mystery 
at work from the beginning was a " mystery 
of iniquity" as well as of power. It was cha- 
racterized by want of love for truth, by lying 
wonders, and by all deceivableness of un- 
righteousness. 

Christianity indeed never changes. It is 

now just that which Christ and his apostles 

taught, and which the Scriptures record. But, 

under the name of corrupted Christianity, we 

have to do with the faith and practice of men, 

in perversion or defiance, in ignorance or neg- 
10* 



114 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

lect of the Scriptures. As thus professed, 
its doctrines were mingled with prevalent 
theories of philosophy, and with classic, druid- 
ical and Saxon superstitions. Its code of 
morals, sound in principle, of universal appli- 
cation, and requiring purity of life, was con- 
taminated by deeply rooted corruption and 
lawless violence. Its active agency for pro- 
moting the instruction of mankind, having 
thrown aside the panoply of truth, was over- 
powered by the savage ignorance of the north- 
ern nations. 

Amidst the vast and intricate agencies 
which were combined in producing these re- 
sults, one fact sufficient for our purpose stands 
out to view; — The word of God was with- 
drawn FROM THE KNOWLEDGE AND THE SIGHT 

of men. This withdrawment was partly the 
result, and partly the cause of ignorance, error, 
and corruption. But, whether cause or result, 
it is the key to the mystery. In proportion 
as we could follow the course of the word of 
God, as it went out complete at the close of 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. H5 

the first century, and could mark the restric- 
tions which impeded and arrested its progress, 
we should attain the clearest possible under- 
standing of the terrible problem involved in 
the corruption of Christianity. Throughout 
the investigation, we should find the banish- 
ment of the Scriptures in close conjunction 
with the exaltation of papal power over the 
church and over the state. 



116 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 



CHAPTER VI. 

THE GRADUAL WRESTING OF THE ELECTIVE FRANCHISE 
FROM THE PEOPLE. 

At the beginning of the period through 
which we have now attempted to trace the 
rise of prelacy in the Christian churches, 
from the equality of republican office to the 
supremacy of spiritual and temporal domin- 
ion, we found that an apostle, the deacons, 
the bishops, and church officers in general 
were elected by the people. 

It might be possible to follow with some 
minuteness the restrictions which were gra- 
dually laid upon the privilege, until it was 
utterly taken away. It is necessary, how- 
ever, only to say, that as emperors, kings, 
and princes acquired influence in the church, 
they exercised it over the choice of officers. 
When an election was contested, their decree 



MHMMBH 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. H? 

settled the dispute. When it was the scene of 
popular disturbance, they interposed to quell 
the tumult and to control its cause. When 
they conferred dignity and wealth on an office, 
they expected to nominate the candidate 
and to confirm the election, if not to make 
the choice. When ecclesiastical office became 
a centre of influence and power, they claimed 
jurisdiction over it as sovereigns of the realm, 
and, in general, when it possessed any value 
whatever, they seized it, as they did all other 
things, either entirely for their own advan- 
tage, or in order to strengthen the vassalage 
of their subjects, " as if these held every thing 
from their sovereign lord, the king." 

Thus we might venture to affirm, that, by 
a process substantially similar, throughout 
the Koman empire, and in the rising mo- 
narchies of modern Europe, elections gradually 
passed from the people to the king, the prince, 
or the prelate. 

But as the despotism of Eome is the crown- 
ing height of the stupendous fabric of mo- 



118 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

narchical usurp ation, wondered at by multi- 
tudes who think little of the process by which 
it has been reared — like the dome of St. Pe- 
ter's, conspicuous from afar, and dazzling the 
view of many who never explore the foun- 
dations on which it rests — it will be sufficient 
to mark the steps by which the election of 
the bishop of Rome passed from the whole 
assembly of the church, who, as we have 
seen, enjoyed it at the beginning. 

A conspicuous interference by the emperor 
occurred in the year 367, in the case of a 
contested election, which had filled the city 
with confusion, and arrayed the parties of the 
respective claimants in bloody strife. Valen- 
tinian decided in favour of one and banished 
the other. 

A similar difficulty occurred in 419, when 
Honorius not only decided between the 
rivals, but enacted a law ordaining, that 
whenever two persons were chosen, a new 
election should be held. 

In 483, Odoacer commanded that no elec- 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. H9 

tion should be made without the king or his 
deputy being present to moderate the assem- 
bly and to approve the choice. 

In 526, the city being divided into many 
parties, Theodoric appointed a person who 
had not been named among the candidates. 
This assumption all parties resisted, but the 
king finally prevailed on them to acknow- 
ledge his nominee, and ordained that in future 
the election by the people should not be valid 
unless it was confirmed by the king. This 
law extended to the election of all the bish- 
ops of Italy, and was continued in force by 
the residue of the Gothic kings, and by the 
Greek emperors. 

In 741, the Romans being in revolt against 
the exarch, and the emperor being too weak 
to quell the rebellion, the pope elect was or- 
dained without consulting either; and al- 
though it may not be possible to mark dis- 
tinctly his first act of internal sovereignty 
over the people, with respect to the external 
authority of the emperor, this confirmation 



120 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

of his own election may be viewed as the 
transition point at which he ceased to be a 
subject and claimed to be a prince. 

When Charlemagne confirmed the grant 
of temporal dominion, he assumed the right 
of approving the election. This right con- 
tinued to be exercised by succeeding em- 
perors, with some interruption and resistance, 
until after the time of Gregory VII., when, in 
the midst of usurpation and strife, it disap- 
peared. 

In 1059, a more important restriction on 
the rights of the people was begun by a de- 
cree of the pope, that the election should be 
made by the college of cardinals, while the 
rest of the clergy and the people should be 
allowed only to confirm the choice. This 
change was not accomplished without violent 
opposition : it gradually, however, prevailed, 
and in the following century was perfected 
by the election being vested absolutely in the 
cardinals, and all others being excluded from 
any concern in it whatever. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 121 

Thus it was not until the threefold supre- 
macy of Rome over the church, the state, and 
the truth had reached its height, that the 
finishing hand was put to the autocrasy, by 
its decreeing to perpetuate itself. The pope 
creates the cardinals, and the cardinals elect 
the pope. 



11 



122 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 



PART III. 

REPUBLICAN INSTITUTIONS RESULTING FROM THE 
REVIVAL OF CHRISTIANITY. 



CHAPTER I. 

DECAY OF THE PAPAL POWER. 

For three centuries, of which Gregory, In- 
nocent, and Boniface may stand the repre- 
sentatives, papal power ran to every excess 
of riot. But like other rioters, it spent its 
substance, and began to be in want. 

Its usurpation hunted kings even unto the 
death, and they turned on their pursuer. Its 
tyranny drove the clergy to despair, and they 
rallied around their king, filled the land with 
remonstrance, or sullenly endured a yoke 
which they could not for the present throw 
off. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 123 

Its rival seats at Rome and Avignon di- 
vided its counsels against itself, exposed its 
vices, and poured upon its pretended infalli- 
bility contempt and scorn. 

Its avarice and fanaticism aroused the na- 
tions to frenzy, and impelled them in un- 
wieldy hordes, or marshalled them in glitter- 
ing hosts against the might of Asia, around 
the so-called sepulchre. But the gigantic 
efforts spent themselves as waves against a 
rock, and when Europe came to herself again, 
the enchanter s spell had lost its power, the 
wealth of kingdoms was exhausted, and the 
feudal institutions — the strongest bulwarks 
of despotism, like their own impregnable 
castles, giving security to brutal violence — 
were undermined and tottered to their fall. 

These and other influences which contri- 
buted to disenthrall the human spirit, re- 
quire, and have received, patient investiga- 
tion from the most gifted minds. To pierce 
them all with eagle eye is the achievement 
of the statesman in his loftiest flight. It is 



124 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

our easier task to trace the popular energy 
aroused by the Scriptures, to mark its strug- 
gles with prelatical and kingly power; its 
fall, deliverance, and, as we at length may 
hope, its approaching triumph. 



AND THEONES OVERTURNED. 125 



CHAPTER II. 

THE INFLUENCE OF THE SCRIPTURES IN FRANCE AND 
SWITZERLAND, 

A heathen historian of the fourth century 
contrasts " the worldly pomp of the bishops 
of Rome, who alleged the grandeur of the 
city as their excuse, with the example of 
some bishops of the provinces, who, by their 
frugal diet, plain dress, modest look, pure 
lives, and regular conduct in all respects, ap- 
proved themselves to the eternal God, and all 
his true worshippers." 

Such genuine Christians were to be found 

in many places of the provinces, doubtless in 

every century following the apostolic age. 

Among these the Vaudois and Albigenses, in 

the south of France, having maintained the 

essentials of Christianity, probably froi^i the 

beginning, began about the thirteenth century 
11* 



126 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

to attract notice by their numbers, their ad- 
herence to the Scriptures, and their zeal in 
protesting against the doctrines and tyranny 
of Rome. Having attempted in vain to sup- 
press the "heresy," the pope enlisted the 
kings of France against them, who, at the 
head of crusading armies, put tens of thou- 
sands to death. Their opinions, however, 
were not rooted out, but were driven to the 
mountains, or spread abroad into many parts 
of Europe. This persecution was the first of the 
series ly which the French kings cut off, at a 
stroke, those who feared God and took his word 
as their guide. 

Again, the Bible was translated and dif- 
fused by Lefevre, Farel, Calvin, and their 
associates. The nation was moved. Minds, 
which the stirring events of the age had 
aroused, and which the revival of learning 
had trained to reflection, seized with avidity 
the re-asserted doctrines. Many, whom other 
influences had not reached, were awakened 
by the preaching and writings of the Eeform- 






AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 127 

ers. The Scriptures were gazed at with won- 
der, and read with delight. The supremacy 
of the pope was denied, and the independence 
of the civil power affirmed. Churches were 
constituted on the republican models furnish- 
ed by the New Testament. 

At first, Francis gave protection to the 
eloquent and learned men who were engaged 
in the work. Having a quarrel with the 
pope, he even thought of professing himself a 
Protestant. But it was whispered to him, 
" In that case you would be yourself the 
greatest sufferer ; a new religion requires a new 
prince." This hint appears to have decided 
him, and, after his captivity, he became a bit- 
ter persecutor. At the head of his court he 
went bareheaded to church, and while, 
along the streets, Protestants were being 
burned to death, he knelt down to pray for 
himself and his nation. By his permission, 
the retreats of the Albigenses were invaded, 
their towns were burned, their fields ravaged, 
and thousands of persons slain. 



128 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

Henry II. followed in the steps of his fa- 
ther. As part of the festivities at his coro- 
nation; he had many. Protestants burned — 
the earnest of what he designed to do. Poli- 
tical affairs for a while engrossed his atten- 
tion, and procured for the Keformation a 
brief respite. Soon, however, the storm 
raged more terribly than before. The Inqui- 
sition was established, the prisons were filled, 
and the king seemed to be planning the de- 
struction of all his Protestant subjects, when 
death cut him down. 

His conduct must not be attributed to 
bigotry alone. The rise of the reformed reli- 
gion necessarily became, in its political aspect, 
a struggle for liberty against absolute power. 
The reply made to Henry by a military officer 
high in rank explains the opposition of kings 
in general to the religion of the Bible — " Sire, 
you can dispose of my life, my property, and 
the offices I hold, but my soul is subject only 
to the Creator, from whom I received it, and 
whom, in this respect, it is my only duty to obey 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 129 

as my Almighty Master." To assert this prin- 
ciple is to spring a mine beneath the throne. 

The following reigns were under the con- 
trol of the queen-mother and the Duke of 
Guise, whose mutual struggles and intrigues 
for the possession of absolute power gave ad- 
ditional rigour to despotism, and aroused the 
utmost fury of persecution. 

The Protestant party, advancing in num- 
bers and influence, became involved more and 
more in the contest for liberty. They were 
favoured or denounced by the royal rivals 
alternately, as the balance of power or the 
hope of supremacy required. At length civil 
war arrayed the strength of the kingdom in 
hostile ranks ; and many of those most dis- 
tinguished by station, ability, and character 
were slain. The Protestants were defeated ; 
and after a short period of treacherous favour, 
their leaders were allured to Paris to join in 
the festivities of a royal wedding. 

Then ensued the massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew's day, the result of deliberate counsels 



130 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

entered into by the pope, Catharine, Charles 
the Ninth, and others high in the exercise 
of despotic power. The tolling of a cathedral 
bell was the signal. The Duke of Guise, 
leading on the troops, and calling out that it 
w r as by the king's command, exhorted them 
to let none escape. Within the very walls 
of the palace nearly all were slain. Blood 
ran in a stream from its doorways, through 
the court, and down the principal streets 
into the Seine. The dead were thrown from 
windows and tops of houses — were dragged 
along the streets, and cast into the river. 
For three days the slaughter raged without 
abatement, and was prolonged, in a less de- 
gree, a whole week. It went further than 
the plotters anticipated, cutting down, not 
only the leaders of the Protestants, but, in- 
discriminately, all ranks. It extended also, 
by the king's command, beyond the city, and 
into every part of France.* 

This atrocious deed was committed in the 

* Protestantism in France. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 131 

last quarter of the sixteenth century, and was 
the climax of the second wholesale extermination 
of a class who, in a greater degree than any others 
in the land, combined the love of liberty with mo- 
rality and religion. 

Without pursuing the history further, we 
need only point to the close of the next cen- 
tury, when, by the revocation of the edict of 
Nantes, France lost half a million of her best 
citizens ; and to the close of the next, when 
the horrors of the Revolution fell upon her : 
and — the end indeed was not yet; but we 
must turn, for the present, to other lands. 

The independence of Switzerland, never 
completely lost, had been secured by William 
Tell, at the beginning of the fourteenth cen- 
tury. There was aristocracy in the govern- 
ment ; there was arbitrary power, (for power 
had not yet been taught to be of gentler 
mood ;) there was also the influence of sur- 
rounding kings, which their gold rendered 
doubly effective, by drawing the Swiss into 



132 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

their armies, and thus subjecting them to a 
semi-allegiance, rending the land with fac- 
tions, and often causing brothers to face each 
other under hostile banners. 

Yet, with all these drawbacks, popular 
liberty had its home among the Alps. When 
the Reformation began its course there, it 
found facilities which nowhere else existed. 
It was indeed opposed. It was marred with 
tyranny. But, notwithstanding imperfec- 
tions, which we have no wish to palliate or 
deny, there, with less of violence, less of per- 
secution than was practised, at the same 
period, in any other land, were planted 
" churches without a prelate, in a state with- 
out a king." 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 133 



CHAPTER III. 

INFLUENCE OF THE SCRIPTURES IN GERMANY. 

At the beginning of the fifteenth century, 
John Huss, a professor in the University of 
Prague, began to preach against the doctrines 
of the Romish church, the corruptions of its 
clergy, and the supremacy of the pope. 

His learning, eloquence, and purity of life, 
acting on the convictions of the people, and 
their general longing for a better religion, 
produced a great commotion, not only in the 
city, but throughout Bohemia. The clergy 
of all ranks were rendered odious. Their 
honours and advantages, their credit and au- 
thority, were in danger. They therefore 
procured his condemnation to the stake. 

But his opinions were lodged in the minds 

and hearts of multitudes, and his death in- 

12 



134 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

flamed their zeal, and goaded them to mad- 
ness. Persecuted and oppressed, they retired 
to a mountain and raised the standard of war, 
in order to obtain liberty to worship God. 
The emperor put many of them to death in 
a barbarous manner ; and on their part, also, 
terrible outrages were committed. They 
were ignorant of the gospel ; their struggles 
to obtain a knowledge of it were opposed, 
and their teachers put to death. 

Yet they made progress. They studied 
the word of God more thoroughly, renounced 
the errors which they had retained or im- 
bibed, sheathed the sword, and expelled the 
disorderly from among them. Thus improv- 
ed, they maintained their faith, and were 
ready for the coming of a brighter day. 

A century later, Luther, in the cloisters of 
another university, feeling after truth with a 
sincere, noble, but darkened mind, found the 
Bible, and learned from it that, being justi- 
fied by faith, men have peace with God. He 
nailed his theses to the cathedral door, 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 135 

taught the truth in the university, preached 
it, wrote it, and sent it through Germany, 
knocking at every man's door. Caught up 
with friendly violence to the Wartburg, he 
translated the Scriptures, and poured them 
as a flood of light over the land. 

With many of the results that followed, 
though they be the noblest and most import- 
ant, we are not now particularly concerned. 
We have only to mark the movement pro- 
duced among the people ; the stimulating of 
their consciences, and the strengthening of 
their determination to read and interpret the 
Bible for themselves, and to worship God ac- 
cording to its commands. 

This brought them into collision with pre- 
lates and princes, with the pope and the em- 
peror. Arbitrary power asserted dominion 
over the conscience ; therefore, now, as in the 
first days of Christianity, obedience to the 
word of God was treason against the throne. 
The pope wrote thus to the emperor : — " If 
I am called to be foremost in making head 



136 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

against the storm, it is not because I am the 
only one threatened, but because I am at the 
helm. The imperial authority is more in- 
vaded than even the dignity of Kome." 
" What !" exclaimed his legates to different 
kings, " will these presumptuous Germans 
pretend to decide points of faith in a national 
assembly ? They seem to expect that kings, 
the imperial authority, all Christendom, the 
whole world, should bend to their decision." 

The plans of the emperor for suppressing 
the Protestant cause were vigorous and de- 
cided. He hurried to a conclusion the war 
with France, made a truce with the Turks, 
and an alliance with the pope. 

He affirmed that he took up arms not in a 
religious, but a civil quarrel ; not to oppress 
any who continued quiet and dutiful, but to 
humble the arrogance of those who had thrown 
off the subordination to him under which they 
were placed. The pope, on the other hand, 
declared that the real object of their confede- 
racy was the maintenance of religious faith. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 137 

This double assertion of the motives which 
influenced them, indicates the contest with 
spiritual and imperial power combined, which 
the Protestants were called to wage. 

Having assembled their troops, the con- 
federate princes published their manifesto, in 
which they* " represented their conduct with 
regard to civil affairs as dutiful and submis- 
sive; they asserted religion to be the sole 
cause of the violence which the emperor me- 
ditated against them ; declared their resolu- 
tion to risk every thing in maintenance of 
their religious rights, and foretold the dissolu- 
tion of the German constitution if the em- 
peror should finally prevail against them." 
In reply, Charles published against them, 
without the consent of the diet, the ban of 
the empire, "the ultimate and most rigorous 
sentence which the German jurisprudence has 
provided for the punishment of traitors. By 
it they were declared rebels and outlaws, their 
goods were confiscated, their subjects absolved 

* Robertson's Charles V. 
12* 



138 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

from their allegiance, and it became not only 
lawful but meritorious to invade their terri- 
tories. The confederates had now only to 
choose between unreserved submission to the 
emperor's will and open hostilities. They 
accordingly sent a herald to the imperial camp, 
with a declaration of war against Charles, re- 
nouncing all allegiance, homage or duty, 
which he might claim, or which they had 
hitherto yielded to him." 

Such was the origin of the conflict, in 
which the triumphs of the emperor tended to 
increase despotic power, and the advantages 
gained by the Protestants promoted liberty 
of conscience and the general rights of man- 
kind. "The treaty of Passau overturned 
the vast fabric, in erecting which Charles had 
employed so many years, and had exerted the 
utmost effort of his power and policy; an- 
nulled his regulations with regard to reli- 
gion, defeated his hopes of rendering the 
imperial authority absolute and hereditary 
in his family, and established the Protestant 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 139 

church in Germany upon a firm and secure 
basis." 

Charles having resigned his dominions, 
Philip attempted to establish the inquisition 
in the Netherlands. This excited an insur- 
rection, and resulted, after a long and bloody 
contest, in the independence of the United 
Provinces. 

The continued persecution of the Protest- 
ants, by imperial authority, provoked a revolt 
in Bohemia, which was the beginning of a 
civil war throughout the empire, that was 
destined to continue thirty years, and, with 
the aid of Gustavus Adolphus, to establish 
freedom of worship, to emancipate the smaller 
states from the authority of the emperor, and 
render his supremacy over the Germanic body 
little more than a name. 



140 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 



CHAPTER IV. 

INFLUENCE OF THE SCRIPTURES IN ENGLAND. 

About the middle of the fourteenth cen- 
tury, John Wycliffe,* professor of divinity at 
Oxford, asserted, in England, the fundamental 
position that the knowledge of God's revealed 
will was to be found in the Scriptures only, 
by every individual who should earnestly and 
humbly seek it. 

In his writings and sermons the paramount 
authority of the Holy Books was explicitly 
inculcated. Whatever he advanced, he en- 
deavoured to rest on their testimony ; and he 
at once familiarized the popular ear to many 
passages from them, to which it had never 
before listened, and excited, by these quota- 
tions, an anxious desire to possess the whole. 

* Pictorial History of England 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 141 

This desire, also, he met by a translation of 
both the Old and New Testaments into the 
English tongue, many copies of which were 
circulated by himself and his disciples. 

The fruits of his teaching appeared at the 
beginning of the following century, when the 
inheritors of his opinions, under the new 
name of Lollards, again awoke the cry of 
reformation. A statute was passed against 
them, denouncing them for making unlawful 
conventicles, holding schools, writing books, 
wickedly instructing the people, and stirring 
them to sedition. The prisons were filled 
with them, various punishments were inflicted 
on them, and, for the first time, the fires of 
Smithfield were lighted. This persecution 
continued until the war of the Roses, when 
"the storm was their shelter."* 

During the former part of Henry the 
Eighth's reign, the popish religion was main- 
tained with all the strength of royal authority. 
His majesty even wrote against Luther, and 

* Fuller. 



142 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

thus earned for himself and his Protestant 
successors the title of ' Defender of the Faith/ 
But the pope having refused to divorce him, 
he renounced his jurisdiction and transferred 
the supremacy over the church to himself. 
He consented to a partial reformation of re- 
ligion, and gave the word of God to the peo- 
ple, that he might thus prevent their return 
to Rome. He broke up the monasteries, not 
because of their corruptions, but that he 
might seize on their revenues. 

"Although he had thrown off the authority 
of the Roman pontiff, he had no notion that 
the English church should be left without a 
pope ; his objection was, not to the thing but 
to the person ; and his main object evidently 
was, that in so far at least as the religion of 
his own subjects was concerned, he might 
mount the same seat of absolute authority 
himself. The ancient head of the Roman 
church never put forward greater pretensions 
to infallibility than were, if not distinctly 
advanced in words, yet constantly acted upon 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 143 

by the new head of the English church in his 
narrower empire of spiritual despotism."* 
He " seemed to think that his subjects owed 
an entire resignation of their reasons and 
consciences to him, and, as he was highly 
offended with those who still adhered to 
the papal authority, so he could not bear 
the haste that some were making to a fur- 
ther reformation before or beyond his al 
lowance."f 

During the brief reign of Edward the Sixth, 
when the English reformers, because of the 
king's minority and piety, were at liberty to 
follow their own judgment, the most import- 
ant progress was made towards a return to 
the doctrines of Scripture. Then it was that 
the " Calvinistic" J articles of religion (at 
first forty-two in number and afterwards 
condensed to thirty-nine) were prepared and 
published. 

The character of the next reign, of its per- 

* Pictorial History of England, vol. ii. p. 697. 
f Bishop Burnet. J Lord Chatham. 



144 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

secutions and results, is represented suffi- 
ciently for our purpose by the familiar phrase 
" Bloody Mary." 

At the accession of Elizabeth, protestantism 
was re-established. " She had been bred up 
with an hatred of the papacy and a love for 
the reformation; but as her first impressions 
in her father's reign were in favour of such old 
rites as he had retained, so in her own nature 
she loved state and some magnificence in re- 
ligion, as well as in every thing else. She 
thought that in her brothers reign they had 
stripped it too much of external ornaments, 
and had made their doctrine too narrow in 
some points."* 

Entertaining these views, she interposed 
her authority to arrest the reformation at such 
a point between popery and protestantism, as, 
in her opinion, was the proper "via media," 
and to stereotype it there for ever. " With 
her prejudices in favour of the old religion, she 
was doubtless an instrument in the hand of 

* Bishop Burnet. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 145 

God, for stopping the progress of the re- 
formation."* 

" There were men among the clergy who 
were opposed, among other things, [we select 
the points bearing on liberty rather than those 
on doctrine^ to the claims of the bishops to be 
considered a superior order to presbyters, and 
to have the sole right of ordination and exer- 
cise of ecclesiastical discipline ; to the tempo- 
ral dignities annexed to the episcopal office ; 
to the prohibition in the public service of 
prayers composed by the clergyman himself; 
to the appointment of ministers by presenta- 
tions from the crown, the bishops and lay 
patrons, instead of by the election of the peo- 
ple."*}* " The greater part of the clergy po- 
sitively objected to the use of the surplice, 
including Sandys, Grindal, Pilkington, Jewell, 
Horn, Parkhurst, Bentham, and all the lead- 
ing men, who were for simplifying our church 
ceremonial, in that and other respects, accord- 

* Brit. Crit. for Oct. 1842, p. 333. 
f Pictorial History of England, vol. ii. p. 717. 
13 



146 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

ing to the Genevan model. Archbishop Parker 
standing almost alone with the Queen in her 
determination to uphold it unaltered"* 

This prelate, who stood next to the throne, 
together with some others, having been ap- 
pointed commissioners by the queen, sum- 
moned the clergy of the several dioceses before 
them, and suspended all who refused to sub- 
scribe an agreement to submit to the queens 
injunctions in regard to habits, rites, and cere- 
monies. Great numbers of ministers, includ- 
ing many of those most eminent for their 
zeal, piety, and popularity as preachers, were 
thus ejected from both the service and the 
profits of their cures, and sent forth into the 
world in a state of entire destitution. When 
they published a vindication of their opinions, 
an order was issued that no person should 
print or publish, sell, bind or stitch any book 
against the queens injunctions. 

Thus cast out of the church, the noncon- 
formists assembled in private houses or else- 

* Brit. Crit. for 1842, p. 330. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 147 

where, to worship God according to their own 
consciences. This practice gave the queen 
and her commissioners abundant employment 
in putting down "conventicles." Offenders 
were arrested and punished in great numbers. 
When Archbishop Grindal recommended mild 
measures, the queen suspended him from his 
see and shut him up in his own house. The 
House of Commons having taken into consi- 
deration several measures for restraining the 
power of the church, she sent to tell them 
how highly she was offended by their daring 
to encroach on her supremacy and attempting 
what she had already forbidden. She also 
commanded the speaker to see that no bills 
touching reformation in matters ecclesiastical 
should be exhibited. 

These facts may serve as specimens of that 
" strong Tudor arm, by which she kept" both 
the clergy and the representatives of the peo- 
ple "in decent bounds." 

When James ascended the English throne, 
he swore that he would allow no toleration, 



148 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

and declared that he would have one doc- 
trine — one discipline — one religion in sub- 
stance and in ceremonies. He pithily ex- 
pressed his views in the maxim — "No bishop — 
no king ;" and afterwards, with still more point, 
"If you aim at a Scottish Presbytery, it agreeth 

WITH MONARCHY AS GOD WITH THE DEVIL." 

Such an opening may indicate the character 
of his reign, and foreshadow the struggle be- 
tween liberty and despotism, which was to be 
prolonged with increasing intensity through- 
out the century, and to result in the tempo- 
rary overthrow, the permanent weakening, 
and, may we not add, the final downfall of the 
English throne. 

We have now traced the effect of the re- 
asserted Scripture doctrine, in arousing 
through different countries of Europe a de- 
termined pursuit of religious liberty among 
the people ; and have seen that this was met 
with an equally determined resistance by ar- 
bitrary power. But although the various 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 149 

national elements which entered into the 
result may be separately considered, they 
scarcely had a separate existence. The same 
truth was employed in attacking one system 
of errors which was widely diffused among 
minds substantially alike. Hence there was 
a uniformity of result amidst variety, and a 
seeking after essential agreement even when 
contradiction and strife appeared. Bonds of 
brotherhood were established among people 
of different countries. Correspondence was 
instituted among minds of the highest order 
concerning the grandest and most important 
truths. The learning and writings of one 
land were communicated to others. Strangers 
from far distant regions were transformed to 
friends by common sufferings and joys. The 
exiles of France found refuge in Bohemia and 
other places; those of the Netherlands in 
England, and those of England, in their turn, 
on the Continent. 

There was unity also in the opposition of 
kings. Charles and Francis, covering their 

13* 



150 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

enmity with the semblance of * friendship, 
joined alliance against the heretics. Philip, 
Catherine, and the Pope, met in secret council 
to plan a general massacre throughout Chris- 
tendom. Catholic Spain exhausted her 
strength in seeking to overwhelm Protestant 
England. 

By these, and by other causes which lie 
out of the plane of the present inquiry, the 
people of Europe were verging, though slowly, 
into unity of feeling and purpose; while 
storms of war, excited by royal tyranny, am- 
bition and strife, were for centuries to shroud 
them in darkness, drench them in blood, and 
rend them into fragments. 

In the mean time a new hemisphere had 
been discovered, and to it the working out 
of liberty for mankind was now to be trans- 
ferred. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 151 



CHAPTER V. 

INFLUENCE OF THE BIBLE UPON AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS. 

That a new era in the development of 
Divine providence was at hand, might have 
been inferred from the accumulation of events 
which were calculated to change the face of 
the world. 

The fall of Constantinople, by which the 
Eastern Empire was enveloped in the dark 
despotism of the False Prophet ; the revival 
of Hebrew and Greek literature, by which 
the restoration of God's word to Europe, and 
eventually to all nations, was secured; the 
invention of printing, which would bring hu- 
man and Divine knowledge within the reach 
of every individual mind ; the birth of Luther, 
Zwingle, Parel, Calvin, Cranmer, and Knox, 
who were to be among the principal agents 
in re-diffusing Christianity ; and the Disco- 



152 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

very of America, by which a broad land 
was opened for civil and religious liberty ; — 
all occurred within the lifetime of a single 
man. 

The providence of God was signally dis- 
played in preserving North America com- 
paratively free from inhabitants, while the 
principal regions of the other hemisphere 
were, at a very early period, filled with vast 
hordes of strong, barbarous, impetuous men. 
From the valley of the Nile, the shores of the 
Mediterranean, Central Asia, Central and 
Northern Europe, have issued forth an almost 
unbroken succession of warriors, filling the 
Eastern world with devastation and death. 
When America was peopled, as is supposed, 
from Asia, the tide of emigration passed 
chiefly down the western coast, and accumu- 
lated in the southern portion of the continent. 
The "sons of the forest," who made their 
way west of the Mississippi, were, in compa- 
rison with the extent of the region, few in 
number, — in Virginia, about one to the 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 15 3 

square mile;* and, although warlike, they 
rushed not on in impetuous masses, marched 
not in the phalanx or the legion, but threaded 
their way in " Indian file." Their mode of 
warfare, consequently, had horrors and perils 
peculiar to itself, yet it was the only mode 
which the colonists were at all able to en- 
counter. If they had been attacked by dense 
masses, they must have been overwhelmed 
at once. 

When Columbus reached the New World, 
it was at the Bahamas, not at the Delaware 
or the Chesapeake. The cry of the Spaniards 
being for gold, the natives pointed them to the 
south, not to the north; this ensured the es- 
tablishment of their empire to be character- 
ized by blood, popery, and despotic sway, over 
Mexico and South America. Afterwards, 
their determined and repeated efforts to ad- 
vance northward were driven back, and St. 
Augustine remained their outpost on the 
eastern coast of North America. 

* Bancroft. 



154 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

The French gained a foothold only on the 
north-eastern portion; and, when they ad- 
vanced into the interior, they went down the 
Mississippi, and established themselves at the 
south-west. 

Thus was North America reserved almost 
unbroken by European colonies, until the 
beginning of the seventeenth century. 

Eepublican institutions were the necessary 
result of the circumstances in which the colo- 
nists were placed, combined with the princi- 
ples which they professed. 

The providence of God led them hither in 
associations formed on substantially equal 
terms, and pledging mutual advantages. 

Common dangers and sufferings, common 
wants and pursuits, exerted from the begin- 
ning a powerful influence in uniting the peo- 
ple together, and insured a strong infusion 
of republican feeling in whatever form of 
government might be adopted. 

Their removal to a great distance, and with 
an ocean between them and their former 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 155 

home, released them, in a measure, from 
royal control, and enabled them, in many 
important respects, to act according to their 
own choice. 

In general, only such persons came to 
America as loved liberty well enough to 
brave the ocean and live in a wilderness in 
order that they might obtain it. They would 
therefore choose popular institutions. "If," 
said William Penn, "we could not assure 
people of an easy, free, and safe government, 
both with respect to their spiritual and 
worldly prosperity; that is, an uninterrupted 
liberty of conscience, and an inviolable pos- 
session of their civil rights and freedoms, by 
a just and wise government, a mere wilder- 
ness would be no encouragement." 

The general distribution of land to the 
original settlers, and the facility with which 
it might subsequently be acquired, furnished 
a broad and secure foundation for republican 
institutions. 

Such being the general causes which com- 



156 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

bined to establish republicanism in America, 
we have now to inquire into the share of in- 
fluence which the Bible exerted in producing those 
causes. 

The love and pursuit of liberty which 
prompted and sustained the settlements were, 
in a great measure, owing to the Scriptures. 
These, as we have seen, had been widely 
diffused and zealously taught throughout 
England, and had aroused, enlarged, and 
enlightened the public mind. Hence, they 
even, who came to America in the hope 
of increasing their worldly prosperity, — 
which was probably the fact with the first 
body of Virginia settlers, — were strongly 
imbued with the love of liberty, and had 
imbibed it partly, at least, from the Bible. 

The settlement of New England must be 
ascribed entirely to the influence of the Scrip- 
tures. A determination to secure for them- 
selves and their descendants a pure and free 
worship of God, according to the directions 
of his revealed word, was the motive which 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 157 

brought the Pilgrim Fathers to America. 
" Their enterprise began from God. A solemn 
fast was held. ' Let us seek from God/ said 
they, i a right way for us, and for our little ones, 
and for all our substance/ ' I charge you before 
God/ (said their minister,) c that you follow me 
no farther than you have seen me follow the 
Lord Jesus Christ. The Lord has more truth 
yet to break forth out of his holy word.' "* 

With similar views, other settlers followed, 
M in order to form in the New World Pro- 
testant institutions, to countervail the Jesuit 
establishments already existing there, and to 
embrace for themselves and their brethren 
the secure asylum which had been furnished 
by the hand of Divine providence itself." 
This motive continued to be the prevailing 
one in the settlement of the other New Eng- 
land colonies. 

Having been impelled to America by the 
principles of the Bible, they persevered after 
their arrival in adhering to it as their guide. 

* Bancroft. 
14 



158 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

The English Bible, translated under the aus- 
pices of King James, had been published only 
a few years before their embarkation. This 
coincidence we cannot refrain from regarding 
as one of the links in the remarkable chain 
of God's providence over America. By it a 
version, eminently fitted to be national and 
permanent, was provided just at the juncture 
when a colony, distinguished for attachment 
to the Scriptures, were about to give charac- 
ter for ever to the Western World. 

This Bible was diffused more and more 
widely ; it has filled the land, and is to this 
day adopted by all Protestant denominations 
as a standard version, subject always to ap- 
peal unto the original Scriptures. From the 
beginning, it was read by the people free 
from restraint imposed by king or magistrate. 
It became the family Bible, was expounded 
and preached in the churches, and taught in 
the schools. Thus it exerted a forming in- 
fluence on the characters and opinions of the 
people. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 159 

It was also openly acknowledged by the 
original Puritans as at once the rule for pri- 
vate life and the guide for civil government. 
The latter portion of their opinion has often 
been held up to ridicule ; but, if it be under- 
stood with reference to the principles esta- 
blished by the Scriptures, as distinguished 
from particular details recorded by them, 
time has proved it to be correct. 

While the germs of American institutions 
were planted at the beginning, they cannot 
be regarded as fully developed until the 
adoption of the federal Constitution. Bear- 
ing this in mind, we may take notice of some 
marked resemblances between the principles 
involved in them, and those asserted in the 
New Testament. 

1. The New Testament, as we have shown 
in a former chapter, maintains that religion 
is of right independent of the civil power. 

This doctrine was not, at first, generally 
understood even by those who fled to Ame- 
rica in order to escape persecution. In Vir- 



160 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

ginia, the church of England was established 
by law, and the supremacy of the king over 
it maintained. The Puritans came to New 
England to secure the undisturbed mainte- 
nance of their own religious opinions — in 
which, at the time, they were unanimous — 
but they were unwilling to admit those of 
contrary views to live among them. They 
made the church the state. This plan led 
to the banishment of many persons on account 
of their religious opinions, and even to the 
death of a few. The law, however, which 
ordained the last-mentioned horrible punish- 
ment, must be regarded as only the last gasp 
of the persecuting doctrines which had drawn 
their life from Europe, and which could not 
live in America. It was carried by a major- 
ity of one vote, and after sentence under it 
had been pronounced the fourth time, public 
opinion rose against it, and it was enforced 
no more. When Maryland was settled, Lord 
Baltimore, a Roman Catholic, who had, how- 
ever, been brought up a Protestant, granted 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 161 

toleration to all Christian denominations. 
We honour this as being in advance of the 
age, and nobly opposed to the spirit which 
ecclesiastical despotism had diffused through 
Europe. But while Lord Baltimore is fairly 
entitled to gratitude, as being, perhaps, the 
very first Roman Catholic who approximated 
to the true Protestant, scriptural doctrine 
concerning religious liberty; still, the right 
of the civil magistrate to interfere in religious 
matters was asserted and maintained by the 
first laws of Maryland. While toleration 
was granted to all Christians, blasphemy 
against the Christian religion was declared 
to be punishable with death, and minor de- 
grees of disrespect towards it, with slighter 
penalties.* In 1631, three years before the 
Maryland colony was planted, Roger Wil- 
liams — a young minister, thirty years of age, 
and who afterwards joined the Baptist de- 
nomination — arrived at Boston, and advanced 
the ever-memorable proposition, that the civil 

* Bancroft. 
14* 



162 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

magistrate has no right to restrain or direct the 
consciences of men, and that any thing short of 
unlimited toleration for all religious systems is 
lamentably contrary to the teaching of Jesus 
Christ. This sentiment procured his banish- 
ment from Massachusetts, and drove him 
without shelter into the forest. Having ob- 
tained land from the Indians, he named his 
settlement Providence. " At a time when 
Germany was the battle-field for all Europe, 
in the implacable wars of religion ; when even 
Holland was bleeding with the anger of 
vengeful factions ; when France was still to 
go through the fearful struggle with bigotry ; 
when England was gasping under the despot- 
ism of intolerance, more than forty years 
before William Penn became an American 
proprietary, Roger Williams asserted the 
great doctrine of intellectual liberty. He 
was the first person in modern Christendom 
to assert, in its plenitude, the doctrine of the 
liberty of conscience, the equality of opinions 
before the law. He was willing to leave 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 163 

truth alone in her own panoply of light, be- 
lieving that if, in the ancient feud between 
truth and error, the employment of force 
could be entirely abrogated, truth would 
have much the best of the bargain."* 

From that time his doctrine, one of the 
first principles announced by Christ, and one 
of the last to be understood by his disciples, 
took deep root in America. Afterwards, at 
the settlement of Pennsylvania, William 
Penn, a member of the Society of Friends, 
also fully guarantied the rights of conscience. 
And at length, by an amendment to the fe- 
deral Constitution, it was ordained, that 
Congress should make no law respecting the es- 
tablishment of religion, or prohibiting the free 
exercise thereof. Thus was the independence 
of religion declared to be a fundamental prin- 
ciple in American institutions. 

2. According to the New Testament, be- 
lievers have the right to associate together as 
a church, having officers elected by them- 

* Bancroft. 



164 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

selves, and being essentially independent of 
all other churches, except as they see proper 
to enter into alliance with them. 

So, in America, citizens are associated into 
communities, having their own officers, and 
being independent of all others, except as 
they have voluntarily united with others, 
and have thus taken upon themselves obliga- 
tions, express or implied. The first American 
republic was formed in the May Flower, on 
the ocean, after the colonists had discovered 
that they were out of the limits of their 
patent, and consequently had not even its 
imaginary authority for taking possession of 
the land. They signed a written constitu- 
tion of government — subject, as they thought, 
to the English crown ; declared themselves a 
body politic; resolved to enact laws, and 
elected a governor to serve for a year. 

The first representative assembly was con- 
vened in Virginia, in 1619; and fifteen years 
after, a similar body met in Massachusetts. 
Thus early did popular representation become 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 165 

"epidemic in America." After other colo- 
nies had been founded in New England, 
their common interests soon bound them to- 
gether in a union which was the germ of 
American confederation. When British op- 
pression threatened all the American colo- 
nies, Massachusetts proposed that a congress 
of deputies should meet. The proposition 
was favourably received, and deputies from 
nine colonies assembled at New York. When 
the ministry persisted in their measures, 
Massachusetts again called on her sister 
colonies, requesting their united aid. When 
the Port Bill was passed, they rallied in her 
defence. Virginia appointed a day of fasting 
and prayer, and proposed that a general con- 
gress should again assemble. Massachusetts 
quickly responded, by appointing her dele- 
gates, and naming the day. The other colo- 
nies also assented, and the Continental Con- 
gress met at Philadelphia, thereby constitut- 
ing a union of the colonies. 

In May, 1775, (according to evidence which 



166 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

appears satisfactory,) *the citizens of Mecklen- 
burg county, North Carolina — a community 
of mingled Scotch and Irish descent, and of 
Presbyterian views concerning doctrine and 
government — passed resolutions " dissolving 
the political bands which had connected them 
with the mother country, absolving them- 
selves from all allegiance to the British crown, 
declaring themselves a free and independent 
people, and pledging to each other in support 
of their declaration, their mutual co-operation, 
their lives, their fortunes and their most sa- 
cred honour." 

These resolutions are fairly entitled to rank 
among the earliest public expressions in fa- 
vour of independence, and evidently furnished 
some of the noblest clauses in the immortal 
Declaration, written by Jefferson, adopted by 
Congress, and published on the Fourth of July, 
1776. 

While the public mind was excited by the 

* See "The Presbyterian," from Feb. to April, 1849. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 167 

discussions which resulted in the Declaration 
of Independence, Thomas Paine addressed a 
tract, entitled Common Sense, to the Ameri- 
can people, strongly urging them to the adop- 
tion of such a measure. One of his prominent 
arguments was drawn from the opposition of 
the Scriptures to monarchical government, 
as evinced in the Jewish commonwealth, and 
in the protest which the prophet Samuel en- 
tered, by divine command, against the popu- 
lar determination to have a king. Thus, 
while the public sentiment of the American 
people had been, to a great extent, formed 
under the influence of confidence in the Bible 
as the word of God, let it never be forgotten 
that the author of the Age of Reason resorted 
to the same Scriptures for those political ar- 
guments by which he exerted an influence in 
favour of liberty. 

The union established by the appointment 
of the Congress was strengthened by the 
" Articles of Confederation ;" and finally was 
perfected — we hope, perpetuated — by the 



168 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

people of the United States ordaining and es- 
tablishing the Constitution. 

It has been asked — In what mind did the 
glorious idea originate, of one nation, to be 
formed out of the independent sovereignties 
which were scattered over the country? 
There is, we think, no answer to this ques- 
tion. As well might we ask — In what in- 
stant was the oak matured? The idea of 
American unity was coeval with the founding 
of the colonies. It grew with their growth, 
and strengthened with their strength. But 
we may point to a precisely similar doctrine 
— "One formed of many" — inculcated by 
the founder of Christianity, and developed 
throughout the New Testament. We know 
that it was constantly presented to the read- 
ers of the Scriptures, and was cherished 
deeply in the hearts of many who laid the 
foundations of our institutions. How far its 
influence has entered into the national union, 
we leave others to judge. A single state- 
ment of it will suffice for our purpose. " As 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 169 

the body is one, and hath many members, 
and all the members of that one body, being 
many, are one body : so also is Christ. God 
hath set the members every one of them in 
the body, as it hath pleased him. If they 
were all one member, where were the body ? 
But now are they many members, yet one 
body. Now ye are the body of Christ, and 
members in particular."* 

3. Again, is it asked — Whence arose the 
extension of citizenship to emigrants from all 
countries? We answer — It was promoted 
by the circumstances under which the colo- 
nies were planted; but these alone would 
not have secured it. 

Among the Jews, strangers might attain 
admission into the commonwealth by em- 
bracing Judaism in all its peculiarities ; they 
could also secure a less degree of privilege by 
a partial conformity. But the main design 
of the Mosaic dispensation was, to separate 
the Jews for a time from other nations, that, 

* 1 Cor. xii. 
15 



170 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

eventually, they might be the instruments of 
blessing to all. Therefore, they were made 
a peculiar people, dwelling alone. National 
prejudice, losing sight of the design of their 
lawgiver, turned this separation into a proud 
exclusiveness, which often refused common 
kindness to people of another race and faith. 
The Greeks looked upon other nations as 
barbarians, and allowed them, at best, but an 
inferior condition among themselves. The 
Romans adopted a policy, in some respects, 
more liberal. But the citizenship they 
granted to people of other countries was in- 
ferior to that which they enjoyed themselves; 
it was bestowed partially, capriciously, in 
different degrees, and, in general, at the price 
either of conquest or submission. With re- 
ference to the general practice of mankind, 

Lands intersected by a narrow frith, 
Abhor each other. Mountains interposed, 
Make enemies of nations, who had else, 
Like kindred drops, been mingled into one. 

Whence then arose the American doctrine 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 171 

of citizenship to the people of all countries 
who come to make this land their home? 
We can show a similar doctrine in the New 
Testament; can it be traced to any other 
source? "By revelation He made known to 
me the mystery, which in other ages was not 
made known unto the sons of men, that the 
nations should be fellow heirs, and of the same 
body, and partakers of His promise in Christ 
by the gospel." " Now therefore ye are 

NO MORE STRANGERS AND FOREIGNERS, BUT 
FELLOW CITIZENS WITH THE SAINTS, AND OF 
THE HOUSEHOLD OF GOD."* 

4. The American doctrine concerning li- 
berty, asserts it to be the equal right of all 
mankind. " We hold these truths to be self-evi- 
dent, — that all men are created equal, that they 
are endowed by their Creator with certain un- 
alienable rights, and that among these are life, 
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness!' 

Truths — evident indeed ; but are they self- 
evident? As well might we call the lofty 

* Eph. ii. and iii. chap. 



172 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

mountain self-evident, which, having been 
concealed during a long night, stands out 
clearly against the sky when the noon-day 
rays surround it. 

A doctrine involving these truths was pro- 
claimed in ancient times ; proclaimed, too, at 
Athens, yet not by Socrates, or Plato, or 
Aristotle, but by him who on Mars' Hill 
preached Jesus and the resurrection. " God 
who made the world, and all things therein, giveth 
to all life, and breath, and all things ; and hath 
made of one blood all nations of men, for to dwell 
on all the face of the earth." This doctrine is 
the corner-stone upon which the whole fabric 
of the Scriptures is reared. Where else can 
it be found, or at least by what instrumentality, 
except that of the Bible, has it been diffused 
through the public sentiment of the Ameri- 
can people ? 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 173 



CHAPTER VIII. 

INFLUENCE OF AMERICA AND OF THE BIBLE UPON 
OTHER NATIONS. 

The combined influence of the Scriptures 
and of liberty is working great changes 
throughout the world. 

Among the crowd of persons running to 
and fro over the earth, the company who press 
on with the Scriptures in their hands are not 
the least active, courageous, and persevering. 
The cold of Greenland has been endured by 
the Moravian as well as by the seaman. The 
missionary is found in advance of the trader 
upon the Equator. He has been a pioneer 
among savages and cannibals; among the 
foremost in exploring unknown regions, and 
without a rival in the mastery of the varied 
languages spoken by the nations. 

15* 



174 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

At the present time, in almost every part 
of the world, missionaries have access to the 
people for the purpose of teaching them Chris- 
tianity. In this respect a wonderful change 
has been effected since the beginning of the 
present century. When Morrison started for 
China, he was obliged to take passage from 
America, because the East India Company 
would not convey missionaries. When the 
first American missionary band reached India, 
they were ordered by the government to re- 
turn in the vessel which had brought them. 
Then commenced a series of privations and 
discussions, which at length reached the Di- 
rectors in London, and by the argument of 
one man the question was decided in favour 
of missions. From that time a change began 
in the policy of the government. Instead of 
conniving at and supporting idolatry, for fear 
that their commercial and political relations 
would be disturbed, they have become in- 
creasingly friendly to the missionary work. 

The heathen generally are favourably dis- 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 175 

posed towards Christian teachers. There are 
few places where they are not permitted to 
attempt their work; and for the most part, 
they dwell in safety and comparative comfort. 
Schools of all grades and in great numbers 
are maintained; the Bible is circulated in 
one hundred and seventy different languages 
and dialects; hundreds of printing-presses 
pour forth instruction drawn from it and from 
the science of Christian nations ; and thou- 
sands of living preachers proclaim the truth 
to little companies, to crowded congregations, 
and to dense masses. 

By such instrumentality, employed all over 
the world, the minds of men are aroused, ex- 
panded, and enlightened; their consciences 
are reached ; their condition is improved, and 
the despotic sway of priest and chief and king 
is undermined. 

To enter upon this topic, as its interest de- 
serves, would carry us far beyond our limits. 
Let us, therefore, glance at a few prominent 



176 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

spots, as specimens of the results which are 
in progress. 

1. Thirty years ago, the first company 
of American missionaries for the Sandwich 
Islands sailed from Boston. On their arrival, 
they found that idolatry had been abolished 
by the king, and that "the isles were wait- 
ing for the law." The government was of 
the most despotic, arbitrary character. The 
people were the slaves of the chiefs ; and both 
chiefs and people, the slaves of the king. 
They were degraded by vice, ignorance, and 
superstition. 

The missionaries reduced the language to 
writing, established schools, erected the print- 
ing-press, translated the Bible, preached the 
gospel, organized republican churches, and 
taught the arts and comforts of civilized life. 
Thus the character and condition of the com- 
mon people were elevated, while the arbitrary 
power of the chiefs and king was checked and 
softened. At length a remarkable revolution 
was achieved. u It was a relinquishment of 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 177 

despotic power by the few for the good of the 
many, not as the result of demands by victo- 
rious subjects, but an optional change from 
hereditary absolutism and grinding tyranny 
to written laws and constitutional freedom. 
Not a tittle of the fair scroll was dyed in 
blood, nor did a threat or a blow urge its 
execution. The principles of freedom and 
the knowledge of history, pursued at the high 
school of the American mission, urged on a 
spirit of inquiry. Every pupil from that 
school went forth an unfledged patriot, but in 
book knowledge far in advance of his rulers. 
The wants of the rising generation were not 
to be bounded by the habits of the old, and 
whether against their wills or no, the chiefs 
were convinced that a change was necessary. 
This was a critical period. But the whole 
mental and moral influence of the American 
Protestant mission — itself a most democratic 
body of a most democratic nation — combined 
with the advice and example of the most in* 
telligent and influential foreigners, operated 



178 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

to effect a peaceful change, and to direct its 
movements. It is no injustice to the foreign 
traders, to attribute this prosperity mainly to 
missionary efforts. The whole undivided 
counsels and exertions of the mission have 
been applied to the spread of Christianity and 
civilization. How far they have been success- 
ful let the result answer. To me it shines 
like the dawning of the Sun of Righteousness 
on a blinded race. Even as the oasis engen- 
ders life and resuscitates the weary traveller 
over arid wastes — so these islands, redeemed 
to civilization, the first, if not the fairest fruits 
of modern philanthropy, foster the toil-worn 
voyager."* 

2. From the islands of the sea let us turn 
towards Africa. 

In all past ages, war and captivity, despot- 
ism and servitude have pervaded the world. 

* Jarves's History of the Sandwich Islands, p. 339 — 359. See 
also the entire volume. This testimony is adduced rather than 
that of missionary narratives, both because of us completeness, 
and because Mr. Jarves has candidly stated that he went out to 
the islands with different opinions concerning the value of the 
missionary effort there. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 179 

The Venetians supplied the Saracen slave 
market with both infidels and Christians. 
The Anglo-Saxon nobility sold their servants 
as slaves to foreigners. " Black Moors" were 
brought from Africa by the Portuguese before 
the discovery of America. Slave ships vi- 
sited all the harbours of the Atlantic coast, 
capturing the Indians and selling them. Not 
Portugal and Spain only carried on this traffic, 
but England also. Queen Elizabeth was a 
slave merchant. English, Scotch, and Irish 
prisoners were doomed by the government 
to involuntary servitude in the American co- 
lonies before African negroes were carried 
thither. " At the very time when Virginia 
became the home of liberty, African slavery 
also was introduced" — when the good seed 
was sown, an enemy introduced the tares. 
" The system was fastened upon the rising 
institutions of America, not by the consent 
of the corporation, nor the desires of the 
emigrants ; but as it was introduced by the 
mercantile avarice of a foreign nation, so it 



180 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

was subsequently riveted by the policy of 
England, without regard to the interests or the 
wishes of the colony."* " By the peace of 
Utrecht, England obtained the exclusive pri- 
vilege of bringing African slaves into Spanish 
America. Companies were chartered, ships 
built, and for thirty years England was the 
active slave merchant of the world. The 
North American colonists were strenuous in 
opposing the trade. The Penns endeavoured 
to abolish slavery and prevent the introduc- 
tion of negroes into Pennsylvania, but the 
attempt failed. Oglethorpe excluded slaves 
from Georgia until the British government 
ordered their introduction. Virginia perse- 
vered in her opposition, 'but,' (says Mr. Ma- 
dison,) 'the British government constantly 
checked the efforts of Virginia to put a stop 
to the infernal traffic' South Carolina tried 
to close her ports against slave ships, but was 
opposed in like manner. The English aris- 
tocracy declared that 'the colonists should 

* Bancroft. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 181 

not interfere with a traffic so beneficial to the 
English nation.' They also said, 'Negroes 
cannot hecome republicans; they will be a 
power in our hands to restrain the unruly 
colonists.' "* 

British statesmen were no nearer being 
prophets on this subject than on others con- 
nected with American affairs. Instead of 
slavery being a power to aid them in ruling 
the colonies, resistance to it was prominent 
among the influences which accomplished 
their independence. One of the first acts of 
the Continental Congress prohibited the in- 
troduction of slaves. In the original draft 
of the Declaration of Independence, Mr. Jeffer- 
son had inserted the following clause. " The 
king of Great Britain has waged cruel war 
against human nature itself, violating its most 
sacred rights of life and liberty, in the persons 
of a distant people who never offended him, 
captivating and carrying them into slavery in 
another hemisphere, or to incur miserable 

* McCartney's United States. Walsh's Appeal. 
16 



182 KEPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

death in their transportation hither. This 
piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel 
powers, is the warfare of the Christian king 
of Great Britain. Determined to keep open 
a market where men should be bought and 
sold, he has prostituted his negative for sup- 
pressing every legislative attempt to restrain 
this execrable traffic. And that this assem- 
blage of horrors might want no fact of dis- 
tinguished dye, he is exciting those very 
people to rise in arms against us, and purchase 
that liberty of which he has deprived them, 
by murdering the people upon whom he has 
obtruded them ; thus paying off former crimes 
against the liberties of one people, by crimes 
which he urges them to commit against the 
lives of another." 

The government of the United States has 
never participated in the slave trade, and was 
the first among the nations to prohibit it. As 
soon as independence was declared, the gra- 
dual emancipation of slaves was begun in 
different States. Thus the evil has been 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 183 

eradicated from a portion of the country, 
while all over the United States a process 
has been going on without cessation, under 
the influence of liberty and the Scriptures, by 
which every chain on every slave has been 
corroded to its very centre. " Now, that 
which decayeth and waxeth old is ready to 
vanish away." " It is not generally known, 
yet it is nevertheless true, that two-thirds of 
the people of Virginia are open and undis- 
guised advocates of ridding the State of slave- 
ry. We speak understandingly. We have,- 
within the last two years, conversed with more 
than five hundred slaveholders in the State, 
and four hundred and fifty of them expressed 
themselves ready to unite on any general 
plan to abolish slavery on almost any terms." 
" Virginia may be put down as no longer re- 
liable on this question. When she goes, the 
District is free territory. Then Delaware 
and Maryland will also go, and North Caro- 
lina and Kentucky will follow suit. This 
will surround the extreme South with free 



184 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

States. When that day comes, and it will 
not be very long/'* — the people of Missouri, 
Kentucky, and Tennessee are even now dis- 
cussing the subject, — the extinction of slavery 
will be a matter of sight, not of faith. If, 
therefore, we look at slavery in the United 
States without reference to its history, it ap- 
pears as a foul contradiction of the principles 
upon which American institutions rest. It 
may also seem, to many, a curse from which 
there is little prospect of being delivered. 
But when we trace its history, we see that it 
is the last lingering among us of a system 
which, at the settlement of America, was 
deeply rooted and universally prevalent ; we 
see that American religion and American 
liberty have resisted it from the beginning ; 
that resistance to it entered largely into the 
struggle for independence ; and that, from the 
first moment of our national existence, the 
process of gradual emancipation has been 

* Richmond Southerner, quoted in Colonization. Herald, 
August, 1848. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 185 

going on. The cloud which yet overhangs a 
portion of the country may appear, in itself, 
dark and threatening ; but when we remem- 
ber that it is only a fragment of what once 
overspread the horizon and the world, we 
may look on with calmness, seeing that it is 
not an advancing, but a retiring storm, and 
that the "bow of promise spans it as it flies." 
Courage, then, Americans ! Patience, sym- 
pathy, an equal bearing of each others bur- 
dens, and a diligent inculcation of Scripture 
truth among both masters and servants, are 
all that is requisite to meet the exigency of 
the case. Let these be secured, and the first 
century of your independence — of which a 
fourth part yet remains — need not be com- 
pleted without witnessing an entire harmony 
between its declaration and the liberty which 
it has actually bestowed. And if this con- 
summation be witnessed, we may ask, with- 
out fear concerning the answer — Where else, 
unless it be in the first century of the Chris- 
tian era, can an equal work be pointed out 

16* 



186 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

as having been accomplished within a hun- 
dred years ? 

But this is not all. Many of the most 
gifted Americans, prompted by the principles 
of the Scriptures, of philanthropy and patri- 
otism, have founded and cherished a colony 
of free coloured people upon the western coast 
of Africa — a noble continent, which God has 
shut up from the whites as signally as he re- 
served America for them. We need not 
detail the struggles or the success of the colo- 
nization scheme. The story is important, 
but not long. The gallant captain who ne- 
gotiated the treaty for the land is yet in 
vigorous life. Directed, at first, by white 
men, at the risk and with the frequent sacri- 
fice of life, emigrants, partly educated at the 
North, and partly trained amidst the insti- 
tutions of slaveholding States, to independ- 
ence in their churches, and to a knowledge 
of republican principles, have, in a quarter 
of a century from the planting of the Ameri- 
can flag on their territory, " assumed among 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. . 187 

the powers of the earth that separate and 
equal station to which the laws of nature and 
of nature's God entitle them." "With their 
own legislature, judges, and executive ; with 
a constitution modelled after that of the 
United States; with the independence of 
religion guarantied, they have unfurled their 
own flag. Upon it is inscribed — u The love 
of liberty brought us here ;" and this is answer- 
ed by another banner, floating over the heads 
of new emigrants leaving the American shore 
— " The love of liberty takes us there!' They 
have made the star of a tropical sky their 
emblem among the nations. It will be not 
their emblem only, but also the harbinger of 
blessedness and light, of peace and truth for 
all that land. Already the piratical slaver 
has disappeared from hundreds of miles of 
the adjacent sea-coast. u The London Times 
estimates the expenditure of Great Britain, 
in the attempt to suppress the slave trade, at 
three millions sterling annually, for forty 
years, and the loss of life as exceeding, dur- 



188 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

ing the same period, all her losses in battle : 
and to what result ? Why, the doubling and 
trebling the number of slaves who get clear, 
and an increase of deaths on the passage, 
owing to the closer stowage, of something 
like three to one. The American Colonization 
Society, with an income from voluntary con- 
tributions of only a few thousands, can point 
to far greater success, from their humble ef- 
forts, than has resulted from the combined 
power of English, French, and American 
navies, sustained at an annual expense of so 
many millions from the public treasury."* 

3. Our next mount of observation is in the 
dominions of the Sultan and the city of Con- 
stantine. 

The roar of battle had ceased at Navarino, 
and, as the smoke cleared away, Greece was 
free, and the Turkish power broken for ever. 
The missionaries from America entered the 
capital. They translated the Scriptures, con- 
versed concerning the truths of the gospel 

* Journal of Commerce. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 189 

with all who came to their hired house, 
preached to the few who ventured attend- 
ance, and spread abroad unnumbered pages 
from Greece to Persia. At length the minds 
of many were aroused, and their hearts af- 
fected. They saw the errors of their church, 
and refused compliance. Persecution was 
excited; poverty, reproach, and anathemas 
were inflicted by the ecclesiastical rulers of 
the people. This drew forth remonstrance 
to the government from the ambassadors of 
Christian nations, and the hand of violence 
was arrested. The independence of the Pro- 
testants, with respect to the authority of the 
Armenian church, was recognised. A church 
was formed on the republican model of the 
New Testament — the first that Constanti- 
nople has ever seen ; and this has been fol- 
lowed by the formation of others in surround- 
ing regions. 

Thus, in twenty years from the arrival of 
the " Bible-men, that is, the followers of the 
devil," (as they were called,) in the city where 



190 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

the liberty of the Christian churches had been 
destroyed by imperial usurpation, and where 
the irruption of the Turks, like the lava of a 
volcano, had enveloped nominal Christianity; 
there, through the power of God's word, a 
republican community, with religious and 
civil liberty, restricted yet guarantied, has 
raised its head from beneath the triple strata 
of superstition, hierarchical tyranny, and Otto- 
man power. 

And through all those fair but desolated 
regions, where the gospel was first preached, 
and to whose inhabitants a large part of the 
New Testament was first given, the light 
shall be rekindled on the golden candlesticks, 
and the truth shall make men free. 

4. And now we are standing again amidst 
those countries of Europe, over which, at the 
opening of the seventeenth century, storms 
of war were gathering, and in which the 
struggle was advancing between truth and 
error, between liberty and arbitrary power. 
That the bursting of the storm has been ter- 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 191 

rific — that the struggle has shaken Europe 
and the world, there is no need here to say. 
These things are among the most deeply pon- 
dered wonders of modern times. From the 
destruction of the Spanish armada to the 
battles of the Nile and of Trafalgar, the roar 
of the ocean has been mingled with that of 
the broadside, with the shouts of the victors 
and the groans of the dying. From the 
English channel to the Pyramids, from Gi- 
braltar to Moscow, the land has been covered 
with camps and marshalled hosts, and battle- 
fields and graves. 

Amidst all the agencies for evil and for 
good, which during this period have been at 
work, the influence of America, as the assertor 
of liberty and the dispenser of truth, has 
been added. That influence began, when 
Columbus first saw the light gleam from her 
island outpost. It increased when the James 
Eiver was entered; when the pilgrims landed; 
when the right angles of the Quaker city 
were surveyed. It has been exerted with an 



192 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

unmeasured force, for more than two hundred 
years ; every hour, every moment, upon all 
classes of men, from the sovereign to the 
serf. It has been exerted upon government, 
upon religion, upon literature and science ; 
upon the arts, the comforts, the joys of social 
life. 

While thus perpetual and advancing, it has 
been manifested at certain great crises with 
triumphant power. Once, in her early his- 
tory, when Chatham, and Burke, and Fox, 
pleaded in her name for the spirit of liberty ; 
when the arguments of the Continental Con- 
gress astounded the House of Commons, and 
when the hand that drew the lightning from 
the cloud signed the treaty of alliance with 
European powers. Again, when the French 
troops, returned from aiding in her struggle 
for liberty, prepared to assert their own; when 
the key of the Bastile was sent to Washing- 
ton, and the liberty of France was first pro- 
claimed. But if proscription followed, if the 
king and his family, the nobles and multi- 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 193 

tudes of every rank were murdered, were 
slaughtered; if terror reigned and anarchy 
raged in ungovernable fury ; if the vision of 
freedom was trampled down by the iron heel 
of the despot — blame not America for these 
results, lay them not to the charge of liberty 
or of truth ; but remember that by the crusade 
against the Albigenses, by the massacre of St. 
Bartholomew's day, by the flight of the Hu- 
guenots, righteousness and truth had been 
cut off — leaving Prance the prey of supersti- 
tion, senseless, usurping and bloated on the 
one hand, and of infidelity, of atheism, dark 
and ferocious on the other. 

Look again at the influence of America, 
combined with truth, when the strength and 
life, the intellect and piety of the Scottish 
church, after having struggled against the 
power of the state since the days of Knox, 
turn their back upon worldly wealth, renounce 
the royal supremacy, and proclaim religion 
free. And do you hear the protest which 
even now is ringing through the English 

17 



194 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

establishment, still more enslaved than the 
Scottish was, because nearer to the throne ? 
That protest will prevail. It appeals to the 
Scriptures. It is the voice of truth against 
usurpations, to uphold which there is no 
longer strength in the sovereign's arm. 

Yet once more. Would you understand 
the influence of America, stand by the side 
of her ambassador, in Paris, as first, among 
the nations, he salutes the Eepublic. Pene- 
trate to the heart of that Austria, whose 
humblest peasants bow at the name of Ame- 
rica. Then may you comprehend why Met- 
ternich flies, why the emperor abdicates, and 
the people of Germany cry out for " Unity 
amongst many." 

See, too, those Eomish priests, who, after 
having long cursed America in their hearts, 
now with admirable coolness reverse their 
engine, that they may escape the collision 
which has crushed kings and diplomatists, 
and with internal trembling but outward 
calmness, assure the people that they shall 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 195 

have institutions exactly like those of Ame- 
rica. Trust them not, but watch their 
course. 

Look, most of all amazed, at that man of 
famous name — Pope Pius the Ninth — hurry- 
ing at the desperate game of hiding the scar- 
let robes of his cardinals with a republican 
dress, and his own tiara with a liberty cap. 
But in vain. " He flies !" and the populace, 
brutalized by the falsehoods and tyranny of 
which they have been the victims for fifteen 
centuries, hurl after him their malediction — 
" Fly 1 thou Jove without thunderbolts! — king 
without crown ! — apostle without faith /" 

The stone is wrenched from its deep foun- 
dations; the angel poises it in his uplifted 
hand; the predicted conflict seems to be 
drawing nigh; and soon the final plunge 
may be heard, announcing that the great 
city, which ruled over all the earth, is no 
more. 

And, if liberty be not established in these 
excited lands, the banishment of the Scrip- 



196 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

tures, the desecration of the Sabbath, and 
the general absence of religious restraints 
from the minds of the people, will sufficiently 
account for the worst disasters that may be 
witnessed. On the other hand, among the 
reasons for encouragement, one is pre-eminent 
— The word of God has been set free. 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 197 



CONCLUSION. 

A word remains to two classes of those 
who may have followed the writer on his 
way. 

1. If you profess to have come to Jesus 
Christ according to his invitation, then, on 
the supposition that your profession declares 
the fact concerning you, as God judges it, you 
have, as individual believers, acquired all the 
privileges of the gospel : even peace with God, 
adoption among his children, the guidance of 
his Spirit, and eternal glory. As associated 
together in the name of Christ, you have se- 
cured for yourselves the fulfilment of his pro- 
mise 1 AM IN THE MIDST OF YOU. This is 

the firm foundation for all your privileges. It 
presents a platform on which all must stand 
who would be members of the church of 

17* 



198 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

Christ, and on which all may stand in sub- 
jection to him, but free with respect to each 
other ; — a platform without limit and without 
inequality, either of elevation or descent. 

All have an equal right to adopt their own 
views of doctrine, according to their judgment 
of Scripture — the only ultimate source of rule 
and of right. 

All have a right to pray with a book or 
without one ; in their own words or those of 
another ; in language prescribed and stated, 
or in such as the occasion or their feelings 
may produce. All have this right equally : 
not because other ages have or have not em- 
ployed a particular mode; not because one 
mode or another is, in itself, more acceptable 
to God, who, in all cases, regards alike the 
heart ; but because they themselves, in the 
exercise of that liberty which is their inalien- 
able inheritance, have chosen their own way. 

All have a right to prescribe, for them- 
selves, rules for seeking and receiving public 
instruction from the word of God. And 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 199 

though " it is not lawful for any man to take 
upon him the office of public preaching or 
ministering the sacraments, before he be law- 
fully called and sent to execute the same f 
yet, " those we ought to judge lawfully called 
and sent who be chosen and called to this 
work by men who have public authority given 
them in the congregation to call and send minis- 
ters into the Lord's vineyard." 

All have an equal right to their own of- 
ficers, chosen by themselves. Here we take 
our stand with Baxter, when he said — " My 
Lord, I am accused for speaking respectfully of 
bishops;' nay, we say with Paul— "If any 
man desire the office of bishop, he desires a good 
work." With the New Testament in our 
hands, we maintain that all, in every indi- 
vidual church, who have been chosen by its 
members as their spiritual guardians, and 
have been ordained by the laying on of 
hands, they are the bishops of that church, 
by whatever other name or names they 
may also be called. 



200 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED 

All individual churches have the right to 
associate themselves together on terms of 
their own adoption, according to their views 
of Scripture and of expediency. They may 
establish councils, conventions, conferences, 
and assemblies, whose acts will be clothed 
with a greater or less degree of authority over 
all the association, depending, not on the ques- 
tion whether similar authority has or has not 
been exercised in other ages, but whether the 
associating churches have, either immediately 
or through their chosen representatives, dele- 
gated the same. 

But, as for all that is imperative in the im- 
position of liturgies ; all that is restrictive in 
the transmission of "ordaining power" through 
the imaginary channel of prelatical succes- 
sion ; all that is exclusive in claims over a 
territorial parish or diocese ; all that is mo- 
nopolizing in the appropriation of church 
privileges and of covenanted mercies; — let it 
be remembered that such things have been 
clothed with authority, not by Christ, or 



AND THRONES OVERTURNED. 201 

Peter, or Paul, but by Constantine, by Pho- 
cas, by Pepin and Charlemagne, by William 
of Normandy and Henry the Eighth. 

Let it be remembered that the mitre is the 
satellite of the crown; the crosier, of the 
sceptre ; the scarlet, of the purple ; and that 
ecclesiastical " thrones" — episcopal, archi- 
episcopal, patriarchal, and papal — are no- 
thing but the steps around those seats of 
regal domination, which the prophet looked 
upon until they were all cast down. 

2. And to Americans, whether members 
of Christian churches or not, the admonition 
of the most reflective and venerable of living 
poets may be addressed : — 

" Ungrateful country, if thou e'er forget 
The sons who for thy civil rights have bled ; 

* * * * * # 

But these had fallen for profitless regret, 
Had not thy holy church her champions bred, 
And claims from other worlds inspirited 
The star of liberty to rise. Nor yet, 
(Grave this within thy heart,) if spiritual things 
Be lost, through apathy, or scorn, or fear, 



202 REPUBLICS ESTABLISHED, 

Shalt thou thy humbler franchises support, 
However hardly won or justly dear ; 
What came from heaven, to heaven by nature clings, 
And, if dissevered thence, its course is short." 

If you would construct a vessel to carry 
you over the ocean, you must take God's 
oaks, which he has planted for your use, and 
rocked into strength by his storms ; if you 
would rear an edifice that will endure for 
ages, you must take God's granite from the 
hills where he has placed it : so, if you would 
pass in safety over the sea of life, or rear a 
moral fabric for personal, social, or political 
use, you must take God's truth, which he 
has caused to spring up upon earth, stouter 
in heart than the oaks of Bashan, and more 
enduring than the everlasting hills. 



THE END. 



NOV -1 I9M» 



